Judaism is the religion of Jews. There is also the Jewish nation. However, it doesn't matter where in the world a Jew lives, they are 100% Jewish and 100% a part of the Jewish nation.
It should be noted that there are some countries today which actively prevent Jewish citizenship, Jewish property ownership, and other fundamental rights to Jews in a way that differs from whatever rights are granted to the majority population. Thankfully, though, such countries are in the minority today.
Answer:As to the question of whether the Torah permits us to live outside of Israel, the answer is that Jews live outside of Israel only as a less-desirable stopgap situation, because of various exigencies.Answer 1There is no Israel its Palestine.Answer 2It depends on the Muslim. Most Arab-Israelis are Muslim and call the State of Israel as "Israel", even if they object to the policies of that state (like Hanin Zoabi). Additionally, most Muslim intellectuals in Western countries or liberal leanings call the area Israel. Most Muslims outside of Israel call the land "Palestine" and call the government "the Zionist Entity" or the "Jewish State".
Diaspora.
No, Nick Clegg is an atheist. That doesn't negate the possibility that he is Jewish. Most of Israel's leaders are atheists, but they still call themselves Jewish.
The Jewish people used to be called Israel, until the political state was established. You can call them the chosen people, or simply 'Jews', in the same way that you would call Mormons 'Mormons'.
Eretz Yisrael is the Jewish name for the Land of Israel, so "C" is the best answer. Jews also call Jerusalem (and by extension the rest of the country) Zion, but not "Zionland", which is why "D" is wrong. "A" and "B" refer to areas of the Middle East outside of the Land of Israel.
This is the recognition of Israel's mission for the Jewish people. Israel is a nation-state in the 19th century understanding of that term. This is in much the same way that Germany, Italy, Armenia, and many other countries are nation-states. Nobody questions Germany's right to maintain an ethnic-German majority in Germany or to base German laws on German cultural values. It is self-understood that if Germany wished to close its border to immigration, they could do so and maintain an ethnically German state. (They technically cannot close the border to EU migrations because of EU Law, but most immigrants to Germany are from countries outside of the EU.) However, there is a strong push to allow resettlement of Palestinian refugees and their descendants into Israel, which would violate the Jewish national culture of the State of Israel. The entire purpose of the State of Israel is to create a State for Jews in both the sense that it is a place where they can live and a place permeated by Jewish values. The recognition by the Palestinian Authority that Israel is a Jewish State would be an implicit acquiescence to what Israel requires as the basis of Israeli-Palestinian negotiations: Palestine should be the State of the Palestinian Arabs. Palestine should be responsible for resettling the refugees of its people, not Israel. It is because of this very implication that the Palestinian Authority has resisted calling Israel the Jewish State.
Lol, here's the thing your either Jewish or not. You're only Jewish if your mum's Jewish. The reason they may call them half Jewish 'cause maybe their father is of another religion, hopefully this all makes sense.
To call Abraham a Jew is a bit anachronistic. Abraham is indeed the first patriarch of the Jewish people, but the term Jew as a reference to any member of the people now called Jewish was first used in the Book of Esther in the Bible. Later in Jewish history, there was a tendency to project Jewish practice back on the patriarchs, so you could say that after the Babylonian Exile, the Jewish community as a whole started considering Abraham to be a Jew. Before the exile, tribal identities were more important, and the collective terms "am Israel" (people of Israel) or "benei Israel" (children of Israel) were used to refer collectively to the 12 tribes. Recall that Israel was the name assumed by Abraham's son Jacob after the incident at the ford of Jabbok.
NO, Israel was the name for the Jewish people. According to Judaism, when the Messiah comes, he will create a state which will be called Israel, it will be roughly where mortal gentiles thought that they had the right to call their state 'Israel', but this happened after the Holocaust.
The Jewish people call it as a shofar.
It depends on how they make that claim. Bedouin and Druze claim that Israel belongs to them as much as it belongs to the Jews and proudly call themselves Bedouin Israelis and Druze Israelis. A number of Arabs who formerly lived in what is now Israel or the Occupied Territories claim that the Jewish State is illegitimate and demand that country be returned to them for administration. These individuals are called Palestinians. (Admittedly, a number of Palestinians are willing to allow Israel to exist outside of the Occupied Territories, but there is no difference in naming between the Two-Staters and the One-Staters.)
Here in Israel we call it a hamsa, from the Aramaic and Arabic word for "five." Most knowledgeable Jews don't bother with these trinkets.