There is lots of thefts and bad people

and the people there are corrupt and also there is lots bribery there

Israel is a fully-modernized country, so it uses all kinds of methods to overcome any lackings. These methods range from the most ancient (such as simple farming-enhancements) to the very latest. Israel is also a pioneer in hi-tech innovation and in inventions in general, in all fields.

See also the Related Links.

Link: What resources does Israel have?

Link: Interesting facts about Israel

Link: How do Israelis grow food in the desert?

This is a controversial question and, as a result, you will have conflicting answers. As the question is written in the affirmative, i.e. seeking evidence, those answers that provide evidence will be listed first. Then those answers arguing that the evidence is not present will follow. The order of the answers says nothing about the correctness or lack thereof of their contents.

Answers A: Hard Evidence Components

In the Hebrew itself is probably the biggest signpost. The Deuteronomist has a very unique style preferring to use the perfect tense (the past tense in Modern Hebrew) for verbs, whereas the other three writers use the imperfect tense (the future tense in Modern Hebrew) for verbs. Other examples include the particular appellation of God's name and similar. While we do not have edited and redacted versions of the text showing additions and interpolations, the authorship of the text is quite clearly different in different sections.

Answers B: No Hard Evidence Present

Answer B1

This is an easy question to answer. There is absolutely no evidence of any kind that these alleged authors actually existed. On the basis of the evidence, and especially in the light of the mass of contrary evidence, the logical conclusion is that these alleged authors are mythical.

Changes in style both over time and according to purpose of writing, the intended audience, or even the maturing of the writer's style are all well-known and understood reasons for differences in writing. These differences are certainly evident in the books of Moses and pose no serious problems for Mosaic authorship, as recognised by non-liberal scholars.

Answer B2

Up until this point, the JEDP Hypothesis remains just that, a hypothesis. It serves as a viable explanation for certain inconsistencies in the Pentateuch, but there is no evidence that demonstrates the act of editing or interpolating. For example, in Yemen, we have found early Qur'anic texts with words etched out, showing the alterations in the text. We have no initial versions of the JEDP texts nor any intermediates which would have some interpolations or redactions but not be the finished product. Our oldest extant versions of the Bible are roughly 95+% equivalent to the ones we have now.

No, there are not. That is because the JEPD hypothesis is a hypothesis. (See also: Archaeology)

Who proposed the Documentary Hypothesis?In the mid-1800s, professor Julius Wellhausen (the father of modern Biblical-criticism, 1844-1918) and others, proposed a Documentary Hypothesis concerning the origin of the Hebrew Bible. Like Darwin, Wellhausen was a former Divinity student who left the fold; and like Darwin, he decided to form and espouse a secular theory in his field of study. Like Evolution, Wellhausen's secular theory was accepted quickly by the academic world, undergoing later change but remaining unchanged in its basic premise.

What is the Documentary Hypothesis?Basing itself on linguistics and usage, the Documentary Hypothesis splits the narrative of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and attributes it to various unknown authors (Priest, Deuteronomist, etc. [J,E,P and D]), despite the Torah's explicit statement as to its Divine provenance (Exodus 24:12) and having been written in its entirety by Moses (Deuteronomy 31:24). See: Criticizing the critics

What do the JEPD theorists ignore?The intricate tapestry of the Hebrew Bible uses literary devices to enrich its text. The Jewish sages, based on ancient tradition, identified many of these devices, which include:

• Recapping earlier brief passages to elucidate,
  
• Employing different names of God to signify His various attributes,
  
• Using apparent changes or redundancies to allude to additional unstated details,
  
• Speaking in the vernacular that was current during each era,
  

What are some problems with the JEPD (Documentary) Hypothesis and Biblical-Criticism?While hundreds, perhaps thousands of examples could be given to demonstrate the lackings of these theories, here are just a few:

1) Unlike the Bible-Critics who possess no early tradition, the Hebrew Bible has been handed down since its beginning, in an unbroken chain of tradition for which we possess the names of the leading sages in every single generation. Every verse is elucidated in the Talmud and midrashim.

2) No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancients who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.

3) Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract specific claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of recent excavation, and the condemnatory judgment of the Documentary theorists have been proved to be without foundation."

4) The theorists postulated a late date for Deuteronomy. This is refuted by the fact that all the early books quote Deuteronomy. Joshua 22:5 quotes Deut.11:22, Joshua 23:16 quotes Deut.11:17, Judges 1:20 fulfills Deut.1:36, Judges 7:3 fulfills the command of Deut.20:8, 1 Kings 8:51 quotes Deut.4:20, 1 Kings 9:8-9 quotes Deut.29:23-24, and 2 Kings 14:6 quotes Deut.24:16.

5) Because of its antiquity, only in the Torah is the female pronoun "hee" spelled with a letter vav; the word "asher" is used exclusively; Jerusalem and the kings are not mentioned, etc.

6) Unlike what the theorists claim, no Levite or Kohen ("priest") would have voluntarily invented the Torah in whole or in part. The Torah allows no portion of the land for the Levites (Numbers ch.8), it states that Leah (ancestress of the Levites) was less-favored (Genesis ch.29), it records the curse against Levi (Genesis ch.49), the rebellion of Korah the Levite (Numbers ch.16), and the role of Aaron the Kohen in the events of the Golden Calf (Exodus ch.32).

7) Some JEPD theorists question the very existence of Moses. In so doing, they not only ignore the continuous tradition of the entire Jewish nation, but also the statements of ancient writers including Hecataeus, Strabo, Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon, Tacitus, Porphyry, Artapanus, Eupolemus, Ben Sira, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritans, Josephus and Philo, all of whom testify that Moses was an actual person.

8) One Bible-theorist, Richard Elliott Friedman claims that "The author of the J document was more interested in the patriarchal period while the author of E was more focused on the Exodus and wilderness age."
- Neither Friedman nor any Bible critic ever interviewed the postulated J or E to hear their focus or interests, or saw a manuscript attributable to them. All that we hear about J and E derives from what the critics themselves believe.

Overstatements of this kind cited go far beyond the type of caution one might expect from a scholar.

9) The critics attempt to break down the continuity of the Torah based on style and vocabulary. Their breakdown often cuts verses into three or four parts, claiming a different writer for each part. But in dealing with so many different topics and eras, it stands to reason that the Torah would use different styles. The narrative of Genesis would not function in a style appropriate to the laws of Leviticus. Just as Shakespeare's plays and sonnets differ yet had one author, (and the same goes for your own resume and shopping lists), so the Torah employs styles depending on the subject matter.
Also, those familiar with Torah-commentators recognize that every question asked by the bible critics was asked, and answered, centuries ago.

10) "Whoever wrote the narrative of Joseph was quite familiar with Egyptian life, Egyptian literature and culture. In particular he was expertly informed concerning the Egyptian royal court" (Prof. Alan Sherman).

Some specific examples
1) It was claimed that the camel hadn't been domesticated in Abraham's time. But the Canophorin tablet, dating from 18th century BCE gives a list of fodder for camels and other household animals. And a cylinder seal from Mesopotamia, dating from the patriarchal era, shows riders sitting on camels.

2) The term "achol et kaspeinu" ("our money was eaten," Genesis 31:15) is spoken by Rachel and Leah concerning an inheritance from their father Laban. This term is found nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Five documents have been unearthed in which 18th century BCE Akkadian marriage contracts use this exact terminology, in the same context. We thus verify again that no postulated late redactor could possibly be credited with such specific knowledge of an era centuries before his own.

3) The names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, Balaam and Joseph were used in the Patriarchal period and dropped out of usage thereafter. These names appear in archaeological inscriptions from that period and no later period. How did those verses get appropriate names for that period of time (if they were created centuries later)?

4) Joseph is sold for twenty pieces of silver. That was the accurate price of a slave in Joseph's time, and at no other time. Slaves were cheaper beforehand, and they got increasingly expensive later. How would a later redactor know the right price?

Some indications of the Divine origin of the Torah1) No other religion claims a national revelation, because that is something that cannot be fabricated.

2) Moses was no zoologist, yet he knew all the species named in Deuteronomy ch.14 and the nature of their digestion (verses 7-8).

3) No Israelite of any tribe, had the Torah been a human invention, would have made Abraham the father of Ishmael, his firstborn (Genesis ch.16). No Israelite would have written that Isaac fathered Esau (Gen.ch.25). Nor would he have admitted the stigma that the Israelites had been slaves (Exodus ch.1). No Israelite would have penned the prohibition against warring with Ammon and Moab (Deut.2:4,9,19), who became enemies; nor would he have ascribed one of our important national institutions to a foreigner (Exodus ch.18).

4) In no other religious text can one find such criticism of its own protagonists. No one is immune to having his faults exposed: Abraham (Genesis 16:5), Reuben (Gen.ch.35), Simeon and Levi (Gen.ch.34 and 49), Judah (Gen.ch.38), Joseph's brothers (Gen.ch.37), Moses (Numbers ch.20), Aaron (Exodus 32:2-4), Samson (Judges 14:1-3), Eli's sons (1 Samuel 2:12), Samuel's sons (1 Samuel 8:1-3), Saul (1 Samuel ch.15), David (2 Samuel ch.11-12), Solomon (1 Kings ch.11), and many others.

5) No human would have forbidden farming for a whole year every seven years (Leviticus ch.25).

6) No other ancient record has such a coherent and detailed account of the genealogy of nations (Genesis ch.10).

7) A few examples of fulfilled prophecies:

The Torah predicts the settling of the Holy Land (Deuteronomy ch.12), the construction of the Sanctuary (ibid), the later Destruction and complete scattering of the Jews (ibid. ch.28), and the later Return (ibid ch.30, and Isaiah 43:5-6). All these have been fulfilled. It also predicts that the Jews would never be completely wiped out (Leviticus 26:44), which is itself a historical miracle.

Noah's blessing of "God will enlarge Japheth" (Genesis ch.9) has been fulfilled through the empires of Persia, Greece, Rome, Russia and America.

God's promise to make Ishmael into a great nation (Genesis ch.17) has been fulfilled through the wide band of Arab and Muslim countries stretching from western Africa to Indonesia, well over 1.5 billion people.

God's warning that "you shall go lost among the nations" (Leviticus 26:38) was fulfilled through the loss, to this day, of ten of the Israelite Tribes.

Moses' blessing to the Levites that God would "smite the loins of those that rise against him" (Deuteronomy 33:11) was fulfilled through the miraculous victories of the Hasmonean kohanim over the Seleucids.

The prophecy that "Edom will be inherited by Israel" (Numbers 24:18) was fulfilled when the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus subdued the Edumeans and converted them (Josephus, Antiquities 13:9:1).

The prophecy that the Torah would never die out (see Gen.32:33, Deut.31:21, Esther 9:28, Isaiah 59:21) has been fulfilled, against all odds.

The prophecy that enemies of the Jews would reside in Israel (Leviticus 26:32) was fulfilled from the time of Nehemiah until today.

These are just a few examples.

Almost all biblical scholars today date the Pentateuch, including the Book of Numbers to around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Israel Finkelstein says that the conservative camp says it was finalised in late monarchic and post-Exilic times (seventh to fifth centuries BCE). He says that scholars belonging to the radical camp place the texts somewhat later, in the Persian or Hellenistic Period.

For information, please visit:

http://christianity.answers.com/bible/the-pentateuch-explained
http://christianity.answers.com/bible/the-book-of-numbers

Tradition states that the Torah was given by God to Moses (Exodus 24:12) in 1312 BCE. Moses taught it to the people (Exodus ch.34), and put it in writing before his death (Deuteronomy 31:24) in 1272 BCE.

This following article will show the reliability of the Hebrew Bible. First, it will point out a few of the many shortcomings of Biblical-Criticism.

• Who proposed the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What is the Documentary Hypothesis?

The Hypothesis also post-dates many of the other books of the Hebrew Bible, ascribing them to unknown authors centuries later. This has the effect of minimizing the reliability of these books, causing them to be seen as not much different than any random ancient text.

• What do the JEPD theorists ignore?

1. Recapping earlier brief passages to elucidate,
2. Employing different names of God to signify His various attributes,
3. Using apparent changes or redundancies to allude to additional unstated details,
4. Speaking in the vernacular that was current during each era. Instead of consulting the Jewish Oral Tradition and commentary which accompanies the Tanakh, the Bible-Critics have formed secular conclusions.

• 1) Unlike the Bible-Critics who possess no early source, the Hebrew Bible has been handed down since its beginning, in an unbroken chain of tradition for which we possess the names, biography and dates of the leading sages in every single generation. Every verse is elucidated in the Talmud and midrashim.
• 2) No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancient writers who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.
• 3) Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract their claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of excavations, and the condemnatory judgment of the theorists have been proved to be without foundation."
• 4) The theorists postulated a late date for Deuteronomy. This is refuted by the fact that all the early books quote Deuteronomy. Joshua 22:5 quotes Deut.11:22, Joshua 23:16 quotes Deut.11:17, Judges 1:20 fulfills Deut.1:36, Judges 7:3 fulfills the command of Deut.20:8, 1 Kings 8:51 quotes Deut.4:20, 1 Kings 9:8-9 quotes Deut.29:23-24, and 2 Kings 14:6 quotes Deut.24:16.
• 5) Because of its antiquity, only in the Torah is the female pronoun "hee" spelled with a letter vav; the word "asher" is used exclusively; Jerusalem and the kings are not mentioned, etc.
• 6) Unlike what the theorists claim, no Levite or Kohen ("priest") would have voluntarily invented the Torah in whole or in part. The Torah allows no portion of the land for the Levites (Numbers ch.8), it states that Leah (ancestress of the Levites) was less-favored (Genesis ch.29), it records the curse against Levi (Genesis ch.49), the rebellion of Korah the Levite (Numbers ch.16), and the role of Aaron the Kohen in the events of the Golden Calf (Exodus ch.32).
• 7) Some JEPD theorists question the very existence of Moses. In so doing, they not only ignore the continuous tradition of the entire Jewish nation, but also the statements of ancient writers including Hecataeus, Strabo, Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon, Tacitus, Porphyry, Artapanus, Eupolemus, Ben Sira, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritans, Josephus and Philo, all of whom testify that Moses was an actual person.
• 8) The Aramaic portions of Ezra were post-dated by the theorists. But inscriptions showed that these passages were exactly in keeping with the style of the Assuan papyri, dated from the reign of Ahaseurus and Darius.
• 9) The fact that the Septuagint and the Dead Sea scrolls (and all other ancient sources) include the complete text of Isaiah, refutes the "Deutero Isaiah" theory.
• 10) The critics created the notion of a rival priesthood in Shilo. No evidence has ever been found of this; and all extant priest-families (Kohens) are linked by a DNA gene, thus debunking also the "Khazar" canard.
• 11) One Bible-theorist, Richard Elliott Friedman claims that "The author of the J document was more interested in the patriarchal period while the author of E was more focused on the Exodus and wilderness age." However, neither Friedman nor any Bible critic ever interviewed the postulated J or E to hear their focus or interests, or even saw a manuscript attributable to them. All that we hear about J and E derives from what the critics themselves postulate. Overstatements of this kind go far beyond the type of caution one might expect from a scholar.

• 12) The critics attempt to break down the continuity of the Torah based on style and vocabulary. Their breakdown often cuts verses into three or four parts, claiming a different writer for each part. But in dealing with so many different topics and eras, it stands to reason that the Torah would use different styles. The narrative of Genesis would not function in a style appropriate to the laws of Leviticus. Just as Shakespeare's plays and sonnets differ yet had one author, (and the same goes for your own resume and shopping lists), so the Torah employs styles depending on the subject matter. Also, those familiar with Torah-commentators recognize that every question asked by the bible critics was asked, and answered, centuries ago.

• 13) "Whoever wrote the narrative of Joseph was quite familiar with Egyptian life, Egyptian literature and culture. In particular he was expertly informed concerning the Egyptian royal court" (Prof. Alan Sherman).

• 1) Critics claimed that the descriptions in the Book of Esther were unrealistic. But when the French archaeologist Marcel Dieulefoy excavated Susa, he stated that the author of Esther must have been closely familiar with the details of the city and the royal palace, which by 1900 had been buried for 2300 years.
• 2) The critics asked how Cyrus' famous proclamation could be dated "the year one" (Ezra 1:1), seeing as it was made in the 21st year of his reign. But then archaeologists found inscriptions stating that when Cyrus conquered Babylon, they began to count the years from that date.
• 3) The secular scholars saw as "unlikely" the royal curse in Ezra 6:12 made by Darius. But inscriptions were found in which more terrible curses were proclaimed by Assurbanipal, Sennacherib, Sargon and other kings.
• 4) The critics denied the narrative of how the Judean king Menashe was captured by the Assyrians. But in the ruins of Kuyundshik was found an inscription by Esarhaddon, enumerating 22 foreign kings that he and Assurbanipal captured, including Menashe king of Judah.
• 5) The destruction of Sennacherib's army at the walls of Jerusalem was denied by the theorists. But then it was found that Berosus and Herodotus both state that Sennacherib's military campaign in Judea ended in plague and defeat. It should not surprise us that the Assyrians themselves didn't record their own losses.
• 6) The existence of the Assyrian king Pul (2 Kings 15:19) was denied. But a tablet, now in the British Museum and dated the year 22 of Darius, states that Tiglat-Pileser and Pul are the same person.
• 7) The critics sought to discredit the invasion of Judah by Sheshak, king of Egypt (2 Chronicles 12:4). But Champolion the French archaeologist, discovered an inscription at Karnak relating Sheshak's conquest of the cities of Judah in detail.
• 8) It was claimed that the camel hadn't been domesticated in Abraham's time. But the Canophorin tablet, dating from 18th century BCE gives a list of fodder for camels and other household animals. And a cylinder seal from Mesopotamia, dating from the patriarchal era, shows riders sitting on camels.
• 9) The term "achol et kaspeinu" ("our money was eaten," Genesis 31:15) is spoken by Rachel and Leah concerning an inheritance from their father Laban. This term is found nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Five documents have been unearthed in which 18th century BCE Akkadian marriage contracts use this exact terminology, in the same context. We thus verify again that no postulated late redactor could possibly be credited with such specific knowledge of an era centuries before his own.
• 10) The names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, Balaam and Joseph were used in the Patriarchal period and dropped out of usage thereafter. These names appear in archaeological inscriptions from that period and no later period. How did those verses get appropriate names for that period of time (if they were created centuries later)?
• 11) Joseph is sold for twenty pieces of silver. That was the accurate price of a slave in Joseph's time, and at no other time. Slaves were cheaper beforehand, and they got increasingly expensive later. How would a later redactor know the right price?

1. No other religion claims a national revelation, because that is something that cannot be fabricated.
2. Moses was no zoologist, yet he knew all the species named in Deuteronomy ch.14 and the nature of their digestion (verses 7-8).
3. No Israelite of any tribe, had the Torah been a human invention, would have made Abraham the father of Ishmael, his firstborn (Genesis ch.16). No Israelite would have written that Isaac fathered Esau (Gen.ch.25). Nor would he have admitted the stigma that the Israelites had been slaves (Exodus ch.1). No Israelite would have penned the prohibition against warring with Ammon and Moab (Deut.2:4,9,19), who became enemies; nor would he have ascribed one of our important national institutions to a foreigner (Exodus ch.18).
4. In no other religious text can one find such criticism of its own protagonists. No one is immune to having his faults exposed: Abraham (Genesis 16:5), Reuben (Gen.ch.35), Simeon and Levi (Gen.ch.34 and 49), Judah (Gen.ch.38), Joseph's brothers (Gen.ch.37), Moses (Numbers ch.20), Aaron (Exodus 32:2-4), Samson (Judges 14:1-3), Eli's sons (1 Samuel 2:12), Samuel's sons (1 Samuel 8:1-3), Saul (1 Samuel ch.15), David (2 Samuel ch.11-12), Solomon (1 Kings ch.11), and many others.
5. No human would have forbidden farming for a whole year every seven years (Leviticus ch.25).
6. No other ancient record has such a coherent and detailed account of the genealogy of nations (Genesis ch.10).

1. The Torah predicts the settling of the Holy Land (Deuteronomy ch.12), the construction of the Sanctuary (ibid), the later Destruction and complete scattering of the Jews (ibid. ch.28), and the later Return (ibid ch.30, and Isaiah 43:5-6). All these have been fulfilled. It also predicts that the Jews would never be completely wiped out (Leviticus 26:44), which is itself a historical miracle.
2. Noah's blessing of "God will enlarge Japheth" (Genesis ch.9) has been fulfilled through the empires of Persia, Greece, Rome, Russia and America.
3. God's promise to make Ishmael into a great nation (Genesis ch.17) has been fulfilled through the wide band of Arab and Muslim countries stretching from western Africa to Indonesia, well over 1.5 billion people.
4. God's warning that "you shall go lost among the nations" (Leviticus 26:38) was fulfilled through the loss, to this day, of ten of the Israelite Tribes.
5. Moses' blessing to the Levites that God would "smite the loins of those that rise against him" (Deuteronomy 33:11) was fulfilled through the miraculous victories of the Hasmonean kohanim over the Seleucids.
6. The prophecy that "Edom will be inherited by Israel" (Numbers 24:18) was fulfilled when the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus subdued the Edumeans and converted them (Josephus, Antiquities 13:9:1).
7. The prophecy that the Torah would never die out (see Gen.32:33, Deut.31:21, Esther 9:28, Isaiah 59:21) has been fulfilled, against all odds.
8. The prophecy that the recently-barren Israel would once again bloom (Isaiah 41:18-20), has been fulfilled.
9. The prophecy that Egypt would no longer rule over other nations (Ezekiel 29:15) has been fulfilled. Until the time of Ezekiel, Egypt had dominated a number of nations. But for most of the past 2500 years, Egypt has been controlled by foreign powers, including the Romans, Ottomans and Europeans. Today, Egypt is independent again. In 1948, 1967 and 1973, Egypt tried to dominate Israel but was unsuccessful each time.
10. The prophecy that enemies of the Jews would reside in Israel (Leviticus 26:32) was fulfilled from the time of Nehemiah until today.
11. The prophecy that Babylon's kingdom would be permanently overthrown (Isaiah 13:19) was fulfilled. After Cyrus conquered Babylon, it never again rose to power as an empire.
12. The prophecy that Tyre's fortresses would fail (Amos 1:9-10) was fulfilled. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar attacked the mainland of Tyre, and later in 333-332 BCE Alexander the Great conquered the island of Tyre. Alexander's army built a causeway from the mainland to the island so that they could use a battering ram to breach the island's fortress.
13. The prophecy that Nineveh would be permanently destroyed (Nahum 3:19) was fulfilled. The prophet said that Nineveh, which was the Assyrian Empire's capital and perhaps the most powerful city at the time, would suffer a wound that would never heal. The city of Nineveh, as well as the Assyrian Empire, never recovered from its defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.

Wrong. It was only the latest of the Hebrew Bible books, such as Ezra, Nehemiah, Daniel, Chronicles and Malachi, which were written at that time. The great majority of the other books were written centuries earlier; such as Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, and Ecclesiastes.

It is the Bible-Critics who attempt to post-date the Hebrew Bible books. This has the effect of minimizing the reliability of these books. For example, if Genesis had been written by postulated anonymous authors from the JEPD hypothesis, it would mean that Genesis' traditional date is wrong, that its writers was not Moses, and (likely) that it was not written through prophecy at God's dictation. Instead of being known as perfectly accurate and godly, it might be seen as not much different than any other ancient non-Hebrew text. This, to the believer, is a grievous error. Interestingly, it was once theorized that writing didn't exist in Moses' time. Then, based upon archaeological proofs, scholars were compelled to retract that theory.

Further information

This following article will show the reliability of the Hebrew Bible. First, it will point out a few of the many shortcomings of Biblical-Criticism.

• Who proposed the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What is the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What do the JEPD theorists ignore?

1. Recapping earlier brief passages to elucidate,
   
2. Employing different names of God to signify His various attributes,
   
3. Using apparent changes or redundancies to allude to additional unstated details,
   
4. Speaking in the vernacular that was current during each era. Instead of consulting the Jewish Oral Tradition and commentary which accompanies the Tanakh, the Bible-Critics have formed secular conclusions.

• 1) Unlike the Bible-Critics who possess no early source, the Hebrew Bible has been handed down since its beginning, in an unbroken chain of tradition for which we possess the names, biography and dates of the leading sages in every single generation. Every verse is elucidated in the Talmud and midrashim.
  
• 2) No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancient writers who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.
  
• 3) Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract their claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of excavations, and the condemnatory judgment of the theorists have been proved to be without foundation."
  
• 4) The theorists postulated a late date for Deuteronomy. This is refuted by the fact that all the early books quote Deuteronomy. Joshua 22:5 quotes Deut.11:22, Joshua 23:16 quotes Deut.11:17, Judges 1:20 fulfills Deut.1:36, Judges 7:3 fulfills the command of Deut.20:8, 1 Kings 8:51 quotes Deut.4:20, 1 Kings 9:8-9 quotes Deut.29:23-24, and 2 Kings 14:6 quotes Deut.24:16.
  
• 5) Because of its antiquity, only in the Torah is the female pronoun "hee" spelled with a letter vav; the word "asher" is used exclusively; Jerusalem and the kings are not mentioned, etc.
  
• 6) Unlike what the theorists claim, no Levite or Kohen ("priest") would have voluntarily invented the Torah in whole or in part. The Torah allows no portion of the land for the Levites (Numbers ch.8), it states that Leah (ancestress of the Levites) was less-favored (Genesis ch.29), it records the curse against Levi (Genesis ch.49), the rebellion of Korah the Levite (Numbers ch.16), and the role of Aaron the Kohen in the events of the Golden Calf (Exodus ch.32).
  
• 7) Some JEPD theorists question the very existence of Moses. In so doing, they not only ignore the continuous tradition of the entire Jewish nation, but also the statements of ancient writers including Hecataeus, Strabo, Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon, Tacitus, Porphyry, Artapanus, Eupolemus, Ben Sira, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritans, Josephus and Philo, all of whom testify that Moses was an actual person.
  
• 8) The Aramaic portions of Ezra were post-dated by the theorists. But inscriptions showed that these passages were exactly in keeping with the style of the Assuan papyri, dated from the reign of Ahaseurus and Darius.
  
• 9) The fact that the Septuagint and the Dead Sea scrolls (and all other ancient sources) include the complete text of Isaiah, refutes the "Deutero Isaiah" theory.
  
• 10) The critics created the notion of a rival priesthood in Shilo. No evidence has ever been found of this; and all extant priest-families (Kohens) are linked by a DNA gene, thus debunking also the "Khazar" canard.
  
• 11) One Bible-theorist, Richard Elliott Friedman claims that "The author of the J document was more interested in the patriarchal period while the author of E was more focused on the Exodus and wilderness age." However, neither Friedman nor any Bible critic ever interviewed the postulated J or E to hear their focus or interests, or even saw a manuscript attributable to them. All that we hear about J and E derives from what the critics themselves postulate. Overstatements of this kind go far beyond the type of caution one might expect from a scholar.

• 12) The critics attempt to break down the continuity of the Torah based on style and vocabulary. Their breakdown often cuts verses into three or four parts, claiming a different writer for each part. But in dealing with so many different topics and eras, it stands to reason that the Torah would use different styles. The narrative of Genesis would not function in a style appropriate to the laws of Leviticus. Just as Shakespeare's plays and sonnets differ yet had one author, (and the same goes for your own resume and shopping lists), so the Torah employs styles depending on the subject matter. Also, those familiar with Torah-commentators recognize that every question asked by the bible critics was asked, and answered, centuries ago.

• 13) "Whoever wrote the narrative of Joseph was quite familiar with Egyptian life, Egyptian literature and culture. In particular he was expertly informed concerning the Egyptian royal court" (Prof. Alan Sherman).

• 1) Critics claimed that the descriptions in the Book of Esther were unrealistic. But when the French archaeologist Marcel Dieulefoy excavated Susa, he stated that the author of Esther must have been closely familiar with the details of the city and the royal palace, which by 1900 had been buried for 2300 years.
  
• 2) The critics asked how Cyrus' famous proclamation could be dated "the year one" (Ezra 1:1), seeing as it was made in the 21st year of his reign. But then archaeologists found inscriptions stating that when Cyrus conquered Babylon, they began to count the years from that date.
  
• 3) The secular scholars saw as "unlikely" the royal curse in Ezra 6:12 made by Darius. But inscriptions were found in which more terrible curses were proclaimed by Assurbanipal, Sennacherib, Sargon and other kings.
  
• 4) The critics denied the narrative of how the Judean king Menashe was captured by the Assyrians. But in the ruins of Kuyundshik was found an inscription by Esarhaddon, enumerating 22 foreign kings that he and Assurbanipal captured, including Menashe king of Judah.
  
• 5) The destruction of Sennacherib's army at the walls of Jerusalem was denied by the theorists. But then it was found that Berosus and Herodotus both state that Sennacherib's military campaign in Judea ended in plague and defeat. It should not surprise us that the Assyrians themselves didn't record their own losses.
  
• 6) The existence of the Assyrian king Pul (2 Kings 15:19) was denied. But a tablet, now in the British Museum and dated the year 22 of Darius, states that Tiglat-Pileser and Pul are the same person.
  
• 7) The critics sought to discredit the invasion of Judah by Sheshak, king of Egypt (2 Chronicles 12:4). But Champolion the French archaeologist, discovered an inscription at Karnak relating Sheshak's conquest of the cities of Judah in detail.
  
• 8) It was claimed that the camel hadn't been domesticated in Abraham's time. But the Canophorin tablet, dating from 18th century BCE gives a list of fodder for camels and other household animals. And a cylinder seal from Mesopotamia, dating from the patriarchal era, shows riders sitting on camels.
  
• 9) The term "achol et kaspeinu" ("our money was eaten," Genesis 31:15) is spoken by Rachel and Leah concerning an inheritance from their father Laban. This term is found nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Five documents have been unearthed in which 18th century BCE Akkadian marriage contracts use this exact terminology, in the same context. We thus verify again that no postulated late redactor could possibly be credited with such specific knowledge of an era centuries before his own.
  
• 10) The names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, Balaam and Joseph were used in the Patriarchal period and dropped out of usage thereafter. These names appear in archaeological inscriptions from that period and no later period. How did those verses get appropriate names for that period of time (if they were created centuries later)?
  
• 11) Joseph is sold for twenty pieces of silver. That was the accurate price of a slave in Joseph's time, and at no other time. Slaves were cheaper beforehand, and they got increasingly expensive later. How would a later redactor know the right price?
  

1. No other religion claims a national revelation, because that is something that cannot be fabricated.
   
2. Moses was no zoologist, yet he knew all the species named in Deuteronomy ch.14 and the nature of their digestion (verses 7-8).
   
3. No Israelite of any tribe, had the Torah been a human invention, would have made Abraham the father of Ishmael, his firstborn (Genesis ch.16). No Israelite would have written that Isaac fathered Esau (Gen.ch.25). Nor would he have admitted the stigma that the Israelites had been slaves (Exodus ch.1). No Israelite would have penned the prohibition against warring with Ammon and Moab (Deut.2:4,9,19), who became enemies; nor would he have ascribed one of our important national institutions to a foreigner (Exodus ch.18).
   
4. In no other religious text can one find such criticism of its own protagonists. No one is immune to having his faults exposed: Abraham (Genesis 16:5), Reuben (Gen.ch.35), Simeon and Levi (Gen.ch.34 and 49), Judah (Gen.ch.38), Joseph's brothers (Gen.ch.37), Moses (Numbers ch.20), Aaron (Exodus 32:2-4), Samson (Judges 14:1-3), Eli's sons (1 Samuel 2:12), Samuel's sons (1 Samuel 8:1-3), Saul (1 Samuel ch.15), David (2 Samuel ch.11-12), Solomon (1 Kings ch.11), and many others.
   
5. No human would have forbidden farming for a whole year every seven years (Leviticus ch.25).
   
6. No other ancient record has such a coherent and detailed account of the genealogy of nations (Genesis ch.10).
   

1. The Torah predicts the settling of the Holy Land (Deuteronomy ch.12), the construction of the Sanctuary (ibid), the later Destruction and complete scattering of the Jews (ibid. ch.28), and the later Return (ibid ch.30, and Isaiah 43:5-6). All these have been fulfilled. It also predicts that the Jews would never be completely wiped out (Leviticus 26:44), which is itself a historical miracle.
   
2. Noah's blessing of "God will enlarge Japheth" (Genesis ch.9) has been fulfilled through the empires of Persia, Greece, Rome, Russia and America.
   
3. God's promise to make Ishmael into a great nation (Genesis ch.17) has been fulfilled through the wide band of Arab and Muslim countries stretching from western Africa to Indonesia, well over 1.5 billion people.
   
4. God's warning that "you shall go lost among the nations" (Leviticus 26:38) was fulfilled through the loss, to this day, of ten of the Israelite Tribes.
   
5. Moses' blessing to the Levites that God would "smite the loins of those that rise against him" (Deuteronomy 33:11) was fulfilled through the miraculous victories of the Hasmonean kohanim over the Seleucids.
   
6. The prophecy that "Edom will be inherited by Israel" (Numbers 24:18) was fulfilled when the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus subdued the Edumeans and converted them (Josephus, Antiquities 13:9:1).
   
7. The prophecy that the Torah would never die out (see Gen.32:33, Deut.31:21, Esther 9:28, Isaiah 59:21) has been fulfilled, against all odds.
   
8. The prophecy that the recently-barren Israel would once again bloom (Isaiah 41:18-20), has been fulfilled.
   
9. The prophecy that Egypt would no longer rule over other nations (Ezekiel 29:15) has been fulfilled. Until the time of Ezekiel, Egypt had dominated a number of nations. But for most of the past 2500 years, Egypt has been controlled by foreign powers, including the Romans, Ottomans and Europeans. Today, Egypt is independent again. In 1948, 1967 and 1973, Egypt tried to dominate Israel but was unsuccessful each time.
   
10. The prophecy that enemies of the Jews would reside in Israel (Leviticus 26:32) was fulfilled from the time of Nehemiah until today.
    
11. The prophecy that Babylon's kingdom would be permanently overthrown (Isaiah 13:19) was fulfilled. After Cyrus conquered Babylon, it never again rose to power as an empire.
    
12. The prophecy that Tyre's fortresses would fail (Amos 1:9-10) was fulfilled. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar attacked the mainland of Tyre, and later in 333-332 BCE Alexander the Great conquered the island of Tyre. Alexander's army built a causeway from the mainland to the island so that they could use a battering ram to breach the island's fortress.
    
13. The prophecy that Nineveh would be permanently destroyed (Nahum 3:19) was fulfilled. The prophet said that Nineveh, which was the Assyrian Empire's capital and perhaps the most powerful city at the time, would suffer a wound that would never heal. The city of Nineveh, as well as the Assyrian Empire, never recovered from its defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.

Some sources indicate that it was given by Moses in 1280 BCE. The first written books are indeterminate. This date is based on what is known as the 'late date' for the Exodus, the Torah being written sometime shortly after when the Israelites went to Sinai. Other sources put the Exodus, and thus the Torah, somewhat earlier in around 1440 BC.

This is based on two things. Firstly, the verse below:

1 Kings 6:1 (King James Version):

1And it came to pass in the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month Zif, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the LORD.

Separately, archeologists have dated the beginning of the construction of the temple as 961 BC.

If you simply add the two dates (961 and 480), this arrives at a 1441 BC date for the Exodus and the Torah of course soon after in 1441 or 1440 BC.

• Jewish answer:

• Who proposed the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What is the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What do the JEPD theorists ignore?

1. Recapping earlier brief passages to elucidate,
   
2. Employing different names of God to signify His various attributes,
   
3. Using apparent changes or redundancies to allude to additional unstated details,
   
4. Speaking in the vernacular that was current during each era. Instead of consulting the Jewish Oral Tradition and commentary which accompanies the Tanakh, the Bible-Critics have formed secular conclusions.

• 1) Unlike the Bible-Critics who possess no early source, the Hebrew Bible has been handed down since its beginning, in an unbroken chain of tradition for which we possess the names, biography and dates of the leading sages in every single generation. Every verse is elucidated in the Talmud and midrashim.
  
• 2) No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancient writers who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.
  
• 3) Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract their claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of excavations, and the condemnatory judgment of the theorists have been proved to be without foundation."
  
• 4) The theorists postulated a late date for Deuteronomy. This is refuted by the fact that all the early books quote Deuteronomy. Joshua 22:5 quotes Deut.11:22, Joshua 23:16 quotes Deut.11:17, Judges 1:20 fulfills Deut.1:36, Judges 7:3 fulfills the command of Deut.20:8, 1 Kings 8:51 quotes Deut.4:20, 1 Kings 9:8-9 quotes Deut.29:23-24, and 2 Kings 14:6 quotes Deut.24:16.
  
• 5) Because of its antiquity, only in the Torah is the female pronoun "hee" spelled with a letter vav; the word "asher" is used exclusively; Jerusalem and the kings are not mentioned, etc.
  
• 6) Unlike what the theorists claim, no Levite or Kohen ("priest") would have voluntarily invented the Torah in whole or in part. The Torah allows no portion of the land for the Levites (Numbers ch.8), it states that Leah (ancestress of the Levites) was less-favored (Genesis ch.29), it records the curse against Levi (Genesis ch.49), the rebellion of Korah the Levite (Numbers ch.16), and the role of Aaron the Kohen in the events of the Golden Calf (Exodus ch.32).
  
• 7) Some JEPD theorists question the very existence of Moses. In so doing, they not only ignore the continuous tradition of the entire Jewish nation, but also the statements of ancient writers including Hecataeus, Strabo, Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon, Tacitus, Porphyry, Artapanus, Eupolemus, Ben Sira, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritans, Josephus and Philo, all of whom testify that Moses was an actual person.
  
• 8) The Aramaic portions of Ezra were post-dated by the theorists. But inscriptions showed that these passages were exactly in keeping with the style of the Assuan papyri, dated from the reign of Ahaseurus and Darius.
  
• 9) The fact that the Septuagint and the Dead Sea scrolls (and all other ancient sources) include the complete text of Isaiah, refutes the "Deutero Isaiah" theory.
  
• 10) The critics created the notion of a rival priesthood in Shilo. No evidence has ever been found of this; and all extant priest-families (Kohens) are linked by a DNA gene, thus debunking also the "Khazar" canard.
  
• 11) One Bible-theorist, Richard Elliott Friedman claims that "The author of the J document was more interested in the patriarchal period while the author of E was more focused on the Exodus and wilderness age." However, neither Friedman nor any Bible critic ever interviewed the postulated J or E to hear their focus or interests, or even saw a manuscript attributable to them. All that we hear about J and E derives from what the critics themselves postulate. Overstatements of this kind go far beyond the type of caution one might expect from a scholar.

• 12) The critics attempt to break down the continuity of the Torah based on style and vocabulary. Their breakdown often cuts verses into three or four parts, claiming a different writer for each part. But in dealing with so many different topics and eras, it stands to reason that the Torah would use different styles. The narrative of Genesis would not function in a style appropriate to the laws of Leviticus. Just as Shakespeare's plays and sonnets differ yet had one author, (and the same goes for your own resume and shopping lists), so the Torah employs styles depending on the subject matter. Also, those familiar with Torah-commentators recognize that every question asked by the bible critics was asked, and answered, centuries ago.

• 13) "Whoever wrote the narrative of Joseph was quite familiar with Egyptian life, Egyptian literature and culture. In particular he was expertly informed concerning the Egyptian royal court" (Prof. Alan Sherman).

• 1) Critics claimed that the descriptions in the Book of Esther were unrealistic. But when the French archaeologist Marcel Dieulefoy excavated Susa, he stated that the author of Esther must have been closely familiar with the details of the city and the royal palace, which by 1900 had been buried for 2300 years.
  
• 2) The critics asked how Cyrus' famous proclamation could be dated "the year one" (Ezra 1:1), seeing as it was made in the 21st year of his reign. But then archaeologists found inscriptions stating that when Cyrus conquered Babylon, they began to count the years from that date.
  
• 3) The secular scholars saw as "unlikely" the royal curse in Ezra 6:12 made by Darius. But inscriptions were found in which more terrible curses were proclaimed by Assurbanipal, Sennacherib, Sargon and other kings.
  
• 4) The critics denied the narrative of how the Judean king Menashe was captured by the Assyrians. But in the ruins of Kuyundshik was found an inscription by Esarhaddon, enumerating 22 foreign kings that he and Assurbanipal captured, including Menashe king of Judah.
  
• 5) The destruction of Sennacherib's army at the walls of Jerusalem was denied by the theorists. But then it was found that Berosus and Herodotus both state that Sennacherib's military campaign in Judea ended in plague and defeat. It should not surprise us that the Assyrians themselves didn't record their own losses.
  
• 6) The existence of the Assyrian king Pul (2 Kings 15:19) was denied. But a tablet, now in the British Museum and dated the year 22 of Darius, states that Tiglat-Pileser and Pul are the same person.
  
• 7) The critics sought to discredit the invasion of Judah by Sheshak, king of Egypt (2 Chronicles 12:4). But Champolion the French archaeologist, discovered an inscription at Karnak relating Sheshak's conquest of the cities of Judah in detail.
  
• 8) It was claimed that the camel hadn't been domesticated in Abraham's time. But the Canophorin tablet, dating from 18th century BCE gives a list of fodder for camels and other household animals. And a cylinder seal from Mesopotamia, dating from the patriarchal era, shows riders sitting on camels.
  
• 9) The term "achol et kaspeinu" ("our money was eaten," Genesis 31:15) is spoken by Rachel and Leah concerning an inheritance from their father Laban. This term is found nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Five documents have been unearthed in which 18th century BCE Akkadian marriage contracts use this exact terminology, in the same context. We thus verify again that no postulated late redactor could possibly be credited with such specific knowledge of an era centuries before his own.
  
• 10) The names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, Balaam and Joseph were used in the Patriarchal period and dropped out of usage thereafter. These names appear in archaeological inscriptions from that period and no later period. How did those verses get appropriate names for that period of time (if they were created centuries later)?
  
• 11) Joseph is sold for twenty pieces of silver. That was the accurate price of a slave in Joseph's time, and at no other time. Slaves were cheaper beforehand, and they got increasingly expensive later. How would a later redactor know the right price?
  

1. No other religion claims a national revelation, because that is something that cannot be fabricated.
   
2. Moses was no zoologist, yet he knew all the species named in Deuteronomy ch.14 and the nature of their digestion (verses 7-8).
   
3. No Israelite of any tribe, had the Torah been a human invention, would have made Abraham the father of Ishmael, his firstborn (Genesis ch.16). No Israelite would have written that Isaac fathered Esau (Gen.ch.25). Nor would he have admitted the stigma that the Israelites had been slaves (Exodus ch.1). No Israelite would have penned the prohibition against warring with Ammon and Moab (Deut.2:4,9,19), who became enemies; nor would he have ascribed one of our important national institutions to a foreigner (Exodus ch.18).
   
4. In no other religious text can one find such criticism of its own protagonists. No one is immune to having his faults exposed: Abraham (Genesis 16:5), Reuben (Gen.ch.35), Simeon and Levi (Gen.ch.34 and 49), Judah (Gen.ch.38), Joseph's brothers (Gen.ch.37), Moses (Numbers ch.20), Aaron (Exodus 32:2-4), Samson (Judges 14:1-3), Eli's sons (1 Samuel 2:12), Samuel's sons (1 Samuel 8:1-3), Saul (1 Samuel ch.15), David (2 Samuel ch.11-12), Solomon (1 Kings ch.11), and many others.
   
5. No human would have forbidden farming for a whole year every seven years (Leviticus ch.25).
   
6. No other ancient record has such a coherent and detailed account of the genealogy of nations (Genesis ch.10).
   

1. The Torah predicts the settling of the Holy Land (Deuteronomy ch.12), the construction of the Sanctuary (ibid), the later Destruction and complete scattering of the Jews (ibid. ch.28), and the later Return (ibid ch.30, and Isaiah 43:5-6). All these have been fulfilled. It also predicts that the Jews would never be completely wiped out (Leviticus 26:44), which is itself a historical miracle.
   
2. Noah's blessing of "God will enlarge Japheth" (Genesis ch.9) has been fulfilled through the empires of Persia, Greece, Rome, Russia and America.
   
3. God's promise to make Ishmael into a great nation (Genesis ch.17) has been fulfilled through the wide band of Arab and Muslim countries stretching from western Africa to Indonesia, well over 1.5 billion people.
   
4. God's warning that "you shall go lost among the nations" (Leviticus 26:38) was fulfilled through the loss, to this day, of ten of the Israelite Tribes.
   
5. Moses' blessing to the Levites that God would "smite the loins of those that rise against him" (Deuteronomy 33:11) was fulfilled through the miraculous victories of the Hasmonean kohanim over the Seleucids.
   
6. The prophecy that "Edom will be inherited by Israel" (Numbers 24:18) was fulfilled when the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus subdued the Edumeans and converted them (Josephus, Antiquities 13:9:1).
   
7. The prophecy that the Torah would never die out (see Gen.32:33, Deut.31:21, Esther 9:28, Isaiah 59:21) has been fulfilled, against all odds.
   
8. The prophecy that the recently-barren Israel would once again bloom (Isaiah 41:18-20), has been fulfilled.
   
9. The prophecy that Egypt would no longer rule over other nations (Ezekiel 29:15) has been fulfilled. Until the time of Ezekiel, Egypt had dominated a number of nations. But for most of the past 2500 years, Egypt has been controlled by foreign powers, including the Romans, Ottomans and Europeans. Today, Egypt is independent again. In 1948, 1967 and 1973, Egypt tried to dominate Israel but was unsuccessful each time.
   
10. The prophecy that enemies of the Jews would reside in Israel (Leviticus 26:32) was fulfilled from the time of Nehemiah until today.
    
11. The prophecy that Babylon's kingdom would be permanently overthrown (Isaiah 13:19) was fulfilled. After Cyrus conquered Babylon, it never again rose to power as an empire.
    
12. The prophecy that Tyre's fortresses would fail (Amos 1:9-10) was fulfilled. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar attacked the mainland of Tyre, and later in 333-332 BCE Alexander the Great conquered the island of Tyre. Alexander's army built a causeway from the mainland to the island so that they could use a battering ram to breach the island's fortress.
    
13. The prophecy that Nineveh would be permanently destroyed (Nahum 3:19) was fulfilled. The prophet said that Nineveh, which was the Assyrian Empire's capital and perhaps the most powerful city at the time, would suffer a wound that would never heal. The city of Nineveh, as well as the Assyrian Empire, never recovered from its defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.

The effect that World War I had upon civilians was devastating. WWI was a war that affected civilians on an unprecedented scale. Civilians became a military target. The economic impact of WWI meant that there were shortages of all produce, most importantly food. Consequently, rationing of bread, tea, sugar and meat was introduced in 1918. This was widely welcomed by the british public, as a voulentary rationing system had been introduced a year before, and people were eager to see their neighbours taking part as they were. Living standards plummeted, and the post-war economic state of Europe was at mid 19th century levels. During the war, 8 to 10 million soldiers were killed in battle, and 22 million were injured. This meant that nearly every family lost someone. Population losses were enormous. Propaganda at the time also gave the false impression to the public that everything was ok, when in reality so many people were dying. However, under the strict rules of DORA, people were never to know this. This became clear after the Battle Of The Somme, July 1st 1916. 60,000 were injured and 20,000 were dead. This incident was famously made into a film. However, it had a major impact on the British civillians, as this-along with Siefried Sassoon's anti-war poetry, made a hole in the government's propaganda. The public were finally beginning to see the reality of the war.

World War One also had a large impact upon the role of Women. With all the men at war as soldiers, Women began working for a living. This became crucial in 1915, as the munitions crisis began. Not only were women working in factories and coal mines, they were called upon to tackle yet another issue. After the German submarine blockade in 1917, Britain was unable to import goods-including food. The Women's Land Army was formed in 1917. They strove to maximise the country's outcome, and to feed the nation.

some of the above changes made by Adam Williams 11A(And the rest by scarlett ward...) (influenza was not caused by the world war, so was omitted.)

All BELOW changes made by me ^^

Why the British citizens continued the war

The British people felt that it was right to go to war against Germany; Germany had violated the independence of a neutral country (Belguim) that had been protected by the joint signatures of France, Britain and Germany and then began the exploitation of materals within those country's for his how war effort. This initial action stirred up a sense of chauvenism within the British population who became positively angled towards continuation of what became a 'Total War' against Germany and her Allies.

The British population at home was stimulated to fight a war against Germany as they had realised that Germany had far-reaching military ambitions which were in part due to it being an autocracy. The treatment of prisoners and refugees from uccupied territories also continued to be emphasised by the government throughout the war. The sinking of the Lusitania was an espcially antagonising event.

There were also in realisation that Germany would likely disregard all their current human rights as was shown by their (the Germans) use of gas in 1915, which was in direct contrast with the rules set out by the Hague Protocol of 1908. Also the highly publiscised murder of Edith Cavell gave British people yet more resolve to continue the war efforts.

Government Legal Implementations during WWI

DORA

The first act of the government that directly contributed towards to the rights of people at home was made on August the 8th 1914, it was called the Defence of the Realm Act, which is often shortened to DORA. DORA was extended in both 1915 and 1916 however the initial implementation gave the government a number of special legal rights such as the ability of the cabinet to impose rules via the Admiralty and the Army Council when it was necessary for an event to defend the safety of the United Kingdom and its Populace.

DORA also enabled censorship of distributed articles which allowe the government to edit newspapers, change personal mail from the front and generally cover-up the true consequences and effects of the war on the population. Censorship is one of the most widely used tactics as a method of concealing true events and was employed by many countries during the First World War, all of who were worried about the morale of the workforce at home.

DORA also allowed the internment of hostile forces (basically anyone suspected of being a spy) without trial as a method of protecting the country from hostile infiltration.

Railways

In August 1914, one of the initial acts of the government was to seize control of the railways to allow for troop movements. However the government did not take full control, they allowed the railway managers to continue running the railways however dictated routes for their troops, in return for which the railways managers wages were garunteed to an extent.

In 5th August 1914 fresh recruiting attempts begun when the army was allowed a further 500,000 troops. This number was attained through the use of propoganda such as the infamous Kitchener posters. Actual conscription during this period was so large that it left many industries redundant as their workers had gone, in these key industries it often took months to bring back the men from the front to the factories.

The Munitions of War Act

The Munitions of War Act was implemented from May 1915 and was a joint collaberation between the government and the TUC (which will be discussed later).

The Munitions of War Act applied to all companies that were a contributing factor in the British war effort, such as those producing army clothing and munitions. The main effects of this act were that -

· Strikes and lock-outs prohibited to try to minimise the time lost due to workers taking union suggested strikes.

· All workplace issues were to be solved by compulsary arbitration.

· Wages within the workplace were protected by the government as insurance against the government by the TUC, also wage increases would need to be government improved.

· Trade unions had to abandon restrictive practices and allow unskilled and semi skilled men and women to take the place of skilled men who had gone to the front. This method was known as dilution, where a more skilled workforce was made less skilled as more unskilled workers entered it (escpecially a issue when it came to munitions production where often bombs would be poorly constructed and thus wouldn't explode, so mass production of duds).

· Profits in contributing industries were to be controlled by the government in an attempt to minimise was profiteering.

· The government was allowed to direct workers to certain industries in certain areas of the country in order to maximise production activity.

· People commiting offences under this act were to be tried in special munitions tribunals.

Military Issues

Both the introduction of conscription and voluntary service into the armed forces posed considerable challenges for people and industry in Britain, the initial wave of fevoured patriotic joining by the masses meant that huge numbers of vital workers were leaving their professions, the government had to bring these workers back to their jobs to allow the smooth production of vital goods. Upon the introduction of conscription (all men 18-41 excepting married men) many of these men would be conscripted, so the government had to introduce 'reserved occupations' wherby people in those occupations were exempt from conscription. Conciencious Objectors were also exempt from military service. Also in May 1916 conscription was increased to include all married men ages 18-41, this was an extension to the conscription introduced in January 1916.

Despite the governments attempts to improve the health of the population after the Boer War in areas there was still up to a 70% level of rejection by the army as the people were unfit for service. It showed an underlying issue with the people of Britain. Others were excluded due to being in 'reserved occupations'.

Also the dilution of the workforce proved to be a key factor in military problems, the quality of shells was extremyl low with huge numbers of duds being produced. This was a huge issue even during the munitions crisis of 1914/1915 when Britain had to make shells to level the deficits between itself and Germany.

Trade Unions

The trade unions wielded huge power during the war, and also increased their influence hugely, their spokebody was generally the TUC (Trade union Congress) and it often collaberted with the government on key ligislation that would affect the lives of individuals. The government was thus able to largely succeed in banning strikes and restrictive practices whilst getting companies to accept conscription and dilution through the use of the TUC and Trade Unions and affiliates. The governmental reliance on the TUC meant that it became a integral part of British life, and the Trade Unions remains o today.

However in areas distrust built up between the Trade Unions and the working classes who felt that the TUC was leaning to much towards the upper class political party's intrests rather than supporting their own, this meant hat the Trade Unions lost much support from the sector. In areas, such as 'red' clydeside there were violent protests by the working classes due to the loss of the right to strike as they felt the TUC had supported the Munitions Act to easily and had thus given up many of their rights. Due to these mistrusts in some areas 'Shop Stewards' (who were fellow workers who represente their colleagues) were set up in direct conflict with the official representative. They were also important in the strikes in the engineering industry that occurred in 1917.

The actual membership of Trade Unions grew from 4 million in 1914 to 6 million by the end of the war, the Trade Unions did help to gain better stability and pay however the fear that it was becoming biased towards government desires built up resentment amongst many of the working class.

· 1913, Days lost to strikes - 9,804,000 over 1459 strikes and 664,000 strikers.

· 1918, Days lost to strikes - 5,875,000 over 1165 strikes and 1,116,000 strikers.

· 1919, Days lost to strikes - 34,969,000 over 1352 strikes and 2,591,000 strikers.

Intrestingly the number of strikers increased during the war; however the number of days lost due to strieks decreased. After the war the effect that the post was slump caused meant that there was a huge increase in striking people. The main reasons for striking during the war were; the cost of living, war profiteering, conscripton, dilution (explained elsewhere) of the workforce and administive incompetance.

Food and Drink

There was a lack of certain food substances during the First World War however these lackings were NOT major issues to the survival of people, there was no time during WWI when people didn't have enough food available to survive. That was not a circumstance that occurred. The government had pre-empted shortages to many supplies such as those to Wheat and Sugar of which the government made bulk purchases early on as to form stockpiles that could last the country. Also shortages of items such as Indian Jute and Russian Flax (used for tents) were pre-empted with huge quanities being brought due to the fear of a loss of trade routes with both countries. These fears were mainly due to the use of U-Boats by Germany.

There was inflation during the First World War, however this was expected during a period of political and military uncertainty. Between July 1914 and June 1916 overall there was 59% inflation. By the Spring of 1917 bread cost twice as much as it had in 1914. The government intervened here, as bread was part of the staple diet for many British people. In the Spring of 1917 they lowered the price of 4lb of Bread to 9d (from 1 shilling), from November a similar subsidy was placed upon potatoes.

There was one main event which seriously threatened the food supplies to Great Britain; this was the sustained and largescale submarine warfare that was imposed upon Britain in the late Autumn of 1916 onwards. This method of intercepting all supplies to Britain (using unrestricted submraine warfare, which many saw as a crime against humanity as it meant that no ship, no matter what its cargo was, was safe) caused wholesale disruption to British food supplies from abroard, which almost cripplng consequences. Britain was left, at one period, with 4 days of sugar supplie remaining and 9 weeks of Wheat supplies left.

Rationing was introduced at a local level in some areas in 1916 and was increased further in 1917 in many countries after the idea was put forwards by Lord Rhondda (Lord Devonport's replacement in the job of food controller with responsibility for distribution, after Devonport failed to make any substancial difference to anything).

Sir George Prothero was appointed as the President of the Board of Agriculture in 1916, his main duty was to increase domestic food production. He did this job successfully as he helped convert an extra 3 million acres of land for agrilcultural usage. This equated into a yearly output of 1 million tons of wheat and 1.3 million tonnes of potatoes being produced.

The government implemented a major crackdown on the consumption of alcohol and its effects. (Lloyd George, War Memoir ½ P173, 'To ensure a more rigid control of drinking facilities in the munition areas.') It was begun due to issues with sailors and the navy, many of whom turned up drunk or alcohol assisted to their duties. The government chose to restrict the oppurtunity to drink in coastal towns, and further to this began expanding scheme countrywide. Between 1914 and 1918 convictions for drunkennes dropped hugely from 4872 in Britain in 1914 to only 804 in 1918.

Due to the efforts of the ministers, Britain became 80% self-sufficent by 1918 in terms of food production.

Taxes

The war was extremely expensive and it led to huge increases in taxes in order to pay for some of the war debts. Before the war the national debt was £625million approx. of debt, by the end of the war this had increased to £7,980million and it accounted for around 70% of expenditure during the war. A vast amount of the remainder was accounted for through taxation. Lloyd George during 1914-1915 increased income tax from 9d per pound to 1s 6d per pound. McKenna during 1915-1916 raised this further to 3s 6d in the pound. Finally Bonar Law from 1916-1918 increased this to 6s in the pound.

The increases in taxation were substancial as they marked a over six-fold increase in taxes which the populace had to burden.

Womens Impact

Women in the first world war played an important role in the replacing of male workers and were key 'diluters' of many workforces (although this is by no means a negative comment) women helped to provide the labour that the government so desperately needed.

The Suffrage movements of the NUWSS and WSPU combined into the NUWSS movement (the Suffragette movement had itself become an autocratic group with huge differences in opinions and ill-feeling between members, the Pankhursts gave up their campaign on the outbreak of war, which had fully disintergrated by 1916) The NUWSS began dedicating itself fully towards the war effort. However the effect of women can easily be over-exagerated. In 1914 there were 5.96million wome in paid employment; however by 1918 this was only up to 7.31million which does not indicate a dramatic increase when the number of soldiers is considered (by 1918 this was around 3,500,000). It is perhaps more accurate to consider that children played more of an impacting role, with the number of child workers who were under 14 increasing four-fold during the war.

However a definite outcome of the war was that women were being given more responsible jobs, the number in educated and advanced employment began to catch up on the number in domestic jobs (which had been womens main jobs for many years). It showed that women were capable of fulfilling these duties.

However after the war the level of female employment fell to almost exactly that of pre war levels, the women were unable to hold onto the jobs after the war, either due to the returning male labourors or the following economical slump. Although many that were kept were in higher ability jobs which gave a basis for other women.

Human Loss

The loss of human life was tremendous, there was a 'lost generation' of those aged 18-25 who had died in the war and with their deaths had left behind a wake of fatherless children and widows that would leave economical and mental scars on British society for years. This effect was felt across all countries involved in the war. Notable losses included Asquiths son and two of Bonar Laws, it showed that the war did not just affect the working classes (as many had complained).

Also there was a huge number of disabled people within the population as a direct result of the First World War and injuries sustained, these had to be cared for by the government which set up numberous specialised institutions for their care.

Aftermath

In February 1918 (agreeably it was before the end of the war, however its causes were due to actions of the war and thus it was an aftermath of these) the government passed the Representation of the People Act which allowed women over 30 the vote. It meant that the post war election would be the first to involve women voters, although full franchise for women wasn't obtained until 1928. Intrestingly, although women's actions during the war were a major influence on them getitng the vote, it wasn't the young main factory workers who received the vote, but the older women who had perhaps acted more inconspicuously.

Further to this act in 1919 The Sex Disqualification Act opened up the legal profession to women, and also allowed a limited amount of access high level civil service jobs. Soon after the register of nurses recognised nursing as a profession. Through the 1918, 1920 and 1921 National Insurance Ats women were made eligible for national insurance benefits.

The liberal party and its ambitions had been ended by the Lloyd George vs. Asquith debate, especially the vote of no confidence initiated by Asquith which he was defeated on. It finally showed the divide between the Asquith and Lloyd George supporters and within the liberal party itself. Lloys George became the last Liberal to serve as a Government leader (although not leader of a singular party government). The labour party grew very substancially during this period and became a leading force.

The government had interferred in the affairs of private businesses and individuals and thus in the future it was more likely that they would do the same or atleast be more intrested in economical welfare within the country. During the war they had possesses a huge amount of control, this left an impression on the government as to the effect they could have.

Timeline

1914

· August - DORA was introduced, the railways were taken over by the government.

· September - Recruiting begins for a further 500,000 people for the armed forces.

· December - The Union of Deomocratic Control was set up, as an anti-war organisation.

1915

· May- A coalition government is formed after the splitting of the liberal party, the Munitions Act is introduced.

· July - The National Registration Act lists all men elligible for military service.

· October - The British nurse accused of being a spy in Germany is shot (executed) by the Germans.

1916

· January - Conscription is introduced, which directly contradicts the liberal principle (although they werent in power, it showed lacking of resolve for their own cause).

· April - Easter Uprising in Dublin, thousands killed, British see it as treachery and put it down (around 500 British casualities).

· December - Lloyd George is made Prime Minister.

1917

· February - Bread is rationed, the voluntary rationing of other foods is also requested as the after math of the Germany U-Boat campaign is felt in its entireity, at this point the government garunteed prices of basic food. During this month the Womens Land Army was created.

1918

· February - Women over 30 are given the vote for the first time in the Representation of the People Act.

· April - Meat rationing introduced.

· July - The Education Act increases school leaving age partly in response to the icnreased child labour during the war.

Bibliography

· War Memoirs Of David Lloyd George Volume ½

· A social history of England - Asa Briggs

· Industry and Empire - E.J. Hobsbawm

· Britain 1890-1939 - Rosemary Rees

· British History 1870-1918 - Dr Robert Johnson

· Britain 1890-1924 - Mike Bryne

A: Biblical scholars can see many reasons for considering the Jewish Torah, the first five books of the Bible to have been written by several different authors and at a time much later than the time attributed to Moses.

The Torah, or Christian Pentateuch, was written by four main sources, each of which (whether one person or a school) had its own literary style. Because they were anonymous, these sources have been given modern names to distinguish them.

1. The Yahwist came first, around the tenth century BCE, using an older version of the Hebrew language and had a vivid, colourful style. He consistently used Yahweh as the name for an anthropomorphic God with human characteristics, one who made promises and covenants with his chosen people. The Yahwist called the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine, Canaanites, and the mountain of God, Sinai. The source's main interests were the southern kingdom, Judah, and the Aaronid priesthood.
2. The Elohist (E) had a moderately eloquent style and used 'Elohim' as the name for a more transcendent God who required obedience and was feared by his people. People could never look at the Elohist's God, so he typically came in dreams or visions, but sometimes in the form of a cloud or a flame. The Elohist called the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine, Amorites, and the mountain of God, Horeb.This source came from the northern kingdom of Israel, and was generally more concerned with general stories than individuals.
3. In line with the needs of a strong monarchy, the Deuteronomist emphasised centralisation of worship and governance in Jerusalem. He is noteworthy for the repetitive use of certain phrases particular to this source.
4. The Priestly source had a low level of literary style and focussed on the formal relations between God and society. He used the names Elohim and El Shaddai to describe a remote and unmerciful God, and drew on the earlier works of the Yahwist and the Elohist, changing details to suit the priestly point of view.

In addition to the evidence of the books themselves is the archaeological evidence that the Exodus from Egypt never really occured as described in the Bible. Without the Exodus there was no Moses, and therefore we would have to look for another author.

• Answer 2

What are the facts? No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancient writers who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.
Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract specific claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of excavations, and the condemnatory judgment of the Documentary theorists have been proved to be without foundation."

According to classical Judaism, Moses was regarded as the author of the Torah (the first five books of the Bible, known to Christians as the Pentateuch), receiving it from God either as divine inspiration or as direct dictation together with the Oral Torah. Tradition says that this happened during the Exodus, around 1440 BCE. However, over the years several questions have arisen, one example being the record in Deuteronomy 34 of Moses' death. The Talmud explains this by saying that Moses wrote it in tears in anticipation of his death. Modern scholars say that the Pentateuch was really written around one thousand years after the time attributed to Moses. On this view, Moses did not really write any part of the Bible.

• Answer 2

• Who proposed the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What is the Documentary Hypothesis?

• What do the JEPD theorists ignore?

1. Recapping earlier brief passages to elucidate,
   
2. Employing different names of God to signify His various attributes,
   
3. Using apparent changes or redundancies to allude to additional unstated details,
   
4. Speaking in the vernacular that was current during each era. Instead of consulting the Jewish Oral Tradition and commentary which accompanies the Tanakh, the Bible-Critics have formed secular conclusions.

• 1) Unlike the Bible-Critics who possess no early source, the Hebrew Bible has been handed down since its beginning, in an unbroken chain of tradition for which we possess the names, biography and dates of the leading sages in every single generation. Every verse is elucidated in the Talmud and midrashim.
  
• 2) No parchment, scroll, or inscription has ever been found that would support the Bible-critics' JEPD (different sources) hypothesis, which remains a set of postulates. And those ancient writers who mention, describe, summarize or translate the Torah (Josephus, Samaritans, Targum, Septuagint etc.), describe it in its complete form.
  
• 3) Archaeological finds, such as the Ugarit documents and those of Nuzu, Mari, Susa, Ebla, and Tel el-Amarna, have repeatedly caused the critics to retract their claims. The entire social milieu portrayed in the Torah, once criticized as anachronistic, has been shown to be historically accurate, including customs of marriage, adoption, contracts, inheritance, purchases, utensils, modes of travel, people's names and titles, etc. Professor Gleason Archer Ph.D of Harvard University states: "In case after case where historical inaccuracy was alleged as proof of late and spurious authorship of the biblical documents, the Hebrew record has been vindicated by the results of excavations, and the condemnatory judgment of the theorists have been proved to be without foundation."
  
• 4) The theorists postulated a late date for Deuteronomy. This is refuted by the fact that all the early books quote Deuteronomy. Joshua 22:5 quotes Deut.11:22, Joshua 23:16 quotes Deut.11:17, Judges 1:20 fulfills Deut.1:36, Judges 7:3 fulfills the command of Deut.20:8, 1 Kings 8:51 quotes Deut.4:20, 1 Kings 9:8-9 quotes Deut.29:23-24, and 2 Kings 14:6 quotes Deut.24:16.
  
• 5) Because of its antiquity, only in the Torah is the female pronoun "hee" spelled with a letter vav; the word "asher" is used exclusively; Jerusalem and the kings are not mentioned, etc.
  
• 6) Unlike what the theorists claim, no Levite or Kohen ("priest") would have voluntarily invented the Torah in whole or in part. The Torah allows no portion of the land for the Levites (Numbers ch.8), it states that Leah (ancestress of the Levites) was less-favored (Genesis ch.29), it records the curse against Levi (Genesis ch.49), the rebellion of Korah the Levite (Numbers ch.16), and the role of Aaron the Kohen in the events of the Golden Calf (Exodus ch.32).
  
• 7) Some JEPD theorists question the very existence of Moses. In so doing, they not only ignore the continuous tradition of the entire Jewish nation, but also the statements of ancient writers including Hecataeus, Strabo, Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon, Tacitus, Porphyry, Artapanus, Eupolemus, Ben Sira, the Greek Septuagint, the Samaritans, Josephus and Philo, all of whom testify that Moses was an actual person.
  
• 8) The Aramaic portions of Ezra were post-dated by the theorists. But inscriptions showed that these passages were exactly in keeping with the style of the Assuan papyri, dated from the reign of Ahaseurus and Darius.
  
• 9) The fact that the Septuagint and the Dead Sea scrolls (and all other ancient sources) include the complete text of Isaiah, refutes the "Deutero Isaiah" theory.
  
• 10) The critics created the notion of a rival priesthood in Shilo. No evidence has ever been found of this; and all extant priest-families (Kohens) are linked by a DNA gene, thus debunking also the "Khazar" canard.
  
• 11) One Bible-theorist, Richard Elliott Friedman claims that "The author of the J document was more interested in the patriarchal period while the author of E was more focused on the Exodus and wilderness age." However, neither Friedman nor any Bible critic ever interviewed the postulated J or E to hear their focus or interests, or even saw a manuscript attributable to them. All that we hear about J and E derives from what the critics themselves postulate. Overstatements of this kind go far beyond the type of caution one might expect from a scholar.

• 12) The critics attempt to break down the continuity of the Torah based on style and vocabulary. Their breakdown often cuts verses into three or four parts, claiming a different writer for each part. But in dealing with so many different topics and eras, it stands to reason that the Torah would use different styles. The narrative of Genesis would not function in a style appropriate to the laws of Leviticus. Just as Shakespeare's plays and sonnets differ yet had one author, (and the same goes for your own resume and shopping lists), so the Torah employs styles depending on the subject matter. Also, those familiar with Torah-commentators recognize that every question asked by the bible critics was asked, and answered, centuries ago.

• 13) "Whoever wrote the narrative of Joseph was quite familiar with Egyptian life, Egyptian literature and culture. In particular he was expertly informed concerning the Egyptian royal court" (Prof. Alan Sherman).

• 1) Critics claimed that the descriptions in the Book of Esther were unrealistic. But when the French archaeologist Marcel Dieulefoy excavated Susa, he stated that the author of Esther must have been closely familiar with the details of the city and the royal palace, which by 1900 had been buried for 2300 years.
  
• 2) The critics asked how Cyrus' famous proclamation could be dated "the year one" (Ezra 1:1), seeing as it was made in the 21st year of his reign. But then archaeologists found inscriptions stating that when Cyrus conquered Babylon, they began to count the years from that date.
  
• 3) The secular scholars saw as "unlikely" the royal curse in Ezra 6:12 made by Darius. But inscriptions were found in which more terrible curses were proclaimed by Assurbanipal, Sennacherib, Sargon and other kings.
  
• 4) The critics denied the narrative of how the Judean king Menashe was captured by the Assyrians. But in the ruins of Kuyundshik was found an inscription by Esarhaddon, enumerating 22 foreign kings that he and Assurbanipal captured, including Menashe king of Judah.
  
• 5) The destruction of Sennacherib's army at the walls of Jerusalem was denied by the theorists. But then it was found that Berosus and Herodotus both state that Sennacherib's military campaign in Judea ended in plague and defeat. It should not surprise us that the Assyrians themselves didn't record their own losses.
  
• 6) The existence of the Assyrian king Pul (2 Kings 15:19) was denied. But a tablet, now in the British Museum and dated the year 22 of Darius, states that Tiglat-Pileser and Pul are the same person.
  
• 7) The critics sought to discredit the invasion of Judah by Sheshak, king of Egypt (2 Chronicles 12:4). But Champolion the French archaeologist, discovered an inscription at Karnak relating Sheshak's conquest of the cities of Judah in detail.
  
• 8) It was claimed that the camel hadn't been domesticated in Abraham's time. But the Canophorin tablet, dating from 18th century BCE gives a list of fodder for camels and other household animals. And a cylinder seal from Mesopotamia, dating from the patriarchal era, shows riders sitting on camels.
  
• 9) The term "achol et kaspeinu" ("our money was eaten," Genesis 31:15) is spoken by Rachel and Leah concerning an inheritance from their father Laban. This term is found nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Five documents have been unearthed in which 18th century BCE Akkadian marriage contracts use this exact terminology, in the same context. We thus verify again that no postulated late redactor could possibly be credited with such specific knowledge of an era centuries before his own.
  
• 10) The names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, Balaam and Joseph were used in the Patriarchal period and dropped out of usage thereafter. These names appear in archaeological inscriptions from that period and no later period. How did those verses get appropriate names for that period of time (if they were created centuries later)?
  
• 11) Joseph is sold for twenty pieces of silver. That was the accurate price of a slave in Joseph's time, and at no other time. Slaves were cheaper beforehand, and they got increasingly expensive later. How would a later redactor know the right price?
  

1. No other religion claims a national revelation, because that is something that cannot be fabricated.
   
2. Moses was no zoologist, yet he knew all the species named in Deuteronomy ch.14 and the nature of their digestion (verses 7-8).
   
3. No Israelite of any tribe, had the Torah been a human invention, would have made Abraham the father of Ishmael, his firstborn (Genesis ch.16). No Israelite would have written that Isaac fathered Esau (Gen.ch.25). Nor would he have admitted the stigma that the Israelites had been slaves (Exodus ch.1). No Israelite would have penned the prohibition against warring with Ammon and Moab (Deut.2:4,9,19), who became enemies; nor would he have ascribed one of our important national institutions to a foreigner (Exodus ch.18).
   
4. In no other religious text can one find such criticism of its own protagonists. No one is immune to having his faults exposed: Abraham (Genesis 16:5), Reuben (Gen.ch.35), Simeon and Levi (Gen.ch.34 and 49), Judah (Gen.ch.38), Joseph's brothers (Gen.ch.37), Moses (Numbers ch.20), Aaron (Exodus 32:2-4), Samson (Judges 14:1-3), Eli's sons (1 Samuel 2:12), Samuel's sons (1 Samuel 8:1-3), Saul (1 Samuel ch.15), David (2 Samuel ch.11-12), Solomon (1 Kings ch.11), and many others.
   
5. No human would have forbidden farming for a whole year every seven years (Leviticus ch.25).
   
6. No other ancient record has such a coherent and detailed account of the genealogy of nations (Genesis ch.10).
   

1. The Torah predicts the settling of the Holy Land (Deuteronomy ch.12), the construction of the Sanctuary (ibid), the later Destruction and complete scattering of the Jews (ibid. ch.28), and the later Return (ibid ch.30, and Isaiah 43:5-6). All these have been fulfilled. It also predicts that the Jews would never be completely wiped out (Leviticus 26:44), which is itself a historical miracle.
   
2. Noah's blessing of "God will enlarge Japheth" (Genesis ch.9) has been fulfilled through the empires of Persia, Greece, Rome, Russia and America.
   
3. God's promise to make Ishmael into a great nation (Genesis ch.17) has been fulfilled through the wide band of Arab and Muslim countries stretching from western Africa to Indonesia, well over 1.5 billion people.
   
4. God's warning that "you shall go lost among the nations" (Leviticus 26:38) was fulfilled through the loss, to this day, of ten of the Israelite Tribes.
   
5. Moses' blessing to the Levites that God would "smite the loins of those that rise against him" (Deuteronomy 33:11) was fulfilled through the miraculous victories of the Hasmonean kohanim over the Seleucids.
   
6. The prophecy that "Edom will be inherited by Israel" (Numbers 24:18) was fulfilled when the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus subdued the Edumeans and converted them (Josephus, Antiquities 13:9:1).
   
7. The prophecy that the Torah would never die out (see Gen.32:33, Deut.31:21, Esther 9:28, Isaiah 59:21) has been fulfilled, against all odds.
   
8. The prophecy that the recently-barren Israel would once again bloom (Isaiah 41:18-20), has been fulfilled.
   
9. The prophecy that Egypt would no longer rule over other nations (Ezekiel 29:15) has been fulfilled. Until the time of Ezekiel, Egypt had dominated a number of nations. But for most of the past 2500 years, Egypt has been controlled by foreign powers, including the Romans, Ottomans and Europeans. Today, Egypt is independent again. In 1948, 1967 and 1973, Egypt tried to dominate Israel but was unsuccessful each time.
   
10. The prophecy that enemies of the Jews would reside in Israel (Leviticus 26:32) was fulfilled from the time of Nehemiah until today.
    
11. The prophecy that Babylon's kingdom would be permanently overthrown (Isaiah 13:19) was fulfilled. After Cyrus conquered Babylon, it never again rose to power as an empire.
    
12. The prophecy that Tyre's fortresses would fail (Amos 1:9-10) was fulfilled. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar attacked the mainland of Tyre, and later in 333-332 BCE Alexander the Great conquered the island of Tyre. Alexander's army built a causeway from the mainland to the island so that they could use a battering ram to breach the island's fortress.
    
13. The prophecy that Nineveh would be permanently destroyed (Nahum 3:19) was fulfilled. The prophet said that Nineveh, which was the Assyrian Empire's capital and perhaps the most powerful city at the time, would suffer a wound that would never heal. The city of Nineveh, as well as the Assyrian Empire, never recovered from its defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.