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Seconds, meters, and kilograms are SI base units. The units are of time, distance, an d mass. A minute is a derived unit. If you add the word kilo in front of the words then you can easily figure out that minute doesn't belong because there is no such thing as a kilo minute.
4 answers
4-letter words
aces, ache, acme, acne, ahem, amen, amus, anes, anus, came, cams, cane, cans, case, cash, cham, chum, cues, each, ecus, emus, haem, haen, haes, hahs, hame, hams, hash, hehs, hems, hens, hues, hums, hunh, huns, hush, mace, mach, macs, maes, mane, mans, mash, maun, mean, menu, mesa, mesh, much, muns, muse, mush, name, nema, neum, same, sane, scam, scan, scum, seam, shah, sham, shea, shun, such, unau
5-letter words
aches, acmes, acnes, amens, amuse, ashen, cames, canes, cause, chams, chase, chasm, chums, haems, hames, hance, hanse, heuch, human, humus, hunch, maces, mache, machs, manes, manse, manus, means, mensa, menus, mucus, munch, musca, names, nemas, neums, nucha, sauce, sauch, scena, shame, sumac, unaus, uncus, usnea
6-letter words
acumen, ashmen, encash, eunuch, hances, haunch, hausen, heuchs, humane, humans, maches, manche, mensch, muches, muscae, naches, nuchae, sachem, samech, schema, sheuch, sumach, uncase, unmesh, unseam, usance
7-letter words
acumens, eunuchs, hunches, manches, munches, usaunce
8-letter words
haunches
1 answer
4-letter words
haaf, haar, habu, hack, hade, hadj, haed, haem, haen, haes, haet, haft, hags, haha, hahs, haik, hail, hair, haji, hajj, hake, hale, half, hall, halm, halo, halt, hame, hams, hand, hang, hank, hant, haps, hard, hare, hark, harl, harm, harp, hart, hash, hasp, hast, hate, hath, hats, haul, haut, have, hawk, haws, hays, haze, hazy, head, heal, heap, hear, heat, heck, heed, heel, heft, hehs, heil, heir, held, hell, helm, help, heme, hemp, hems, hens, hent, herb, herd, here, herl, herm, hern, hero, hers, hest, heth, hets, hewn, hews, hick, hide, hied, hies, high, hike, hila, hili, hill, hilt, hind, hins, hint, hips, hire, hisn, hiss, hist, hits, hive, hoar, hoax, hobo, hobs, hock, hods, hoed, hoer, hoes, hogg, hogs, hoke, hold, hole, holk, holm, holp, hols, holt, holy, home, homo, homy, hone, hong, honk, hons, hood, hoof, hook, hoop, hoot, hope, hops, hora, horn, hose, host, hots, hour, hove, howe, howf, howk, howl, hows, hoya, hoys, hubs, huck, hued, hues, huff, huge, hugs, huic, hula, hulk, hull, hump, hums, hung, hunh, hunk, huns, hunt, hurl, hurt, hush, husk, huts, hwan, hyla, hymn, hype, hypo, hyps, hyte
1 answer
2-letter words
de, ef, eh, er, es, he, hi, id, if, is, pe, pi, re, sh, si
3-letter words
dei, des, die, dip, edh, efs, ers, fed, feh, fer, fid, fie, fir, heh, hep, her, hes, hid, hie, hip, his, ids, ifs, ire, ped, peh, per, pes, phi, pie, pis, psi, red, ref, rei, rep, res, rid, rif, rip, sei, ser, she, shh, sip, sir, sri
4-letter words
defi, dies, dips, dire, dish, drip, edhs, feds, fehs, fids, fire, firs, fish, hehs, heir, herd, hers, hide, hied, hies, hips, hire, ides, ired, ires, irid, iris, peds, pehs, peri, phis, pied, pier, pies, pish, reds, refs, reif, reis, reps, resh, ride, rids, rife, rifs, ripe, rips, rise, seif, serf, shed, ship, shri, side, sipe, sire, sped
5-letter words
defis, dries, drips, fired, fires, fresh, fried, fries, frise, heirs, herds, hider, hides, hired, hires, irids, peris, piers, pride, pried, pries, prise, redip, reifs, resid, rides, riped, ripes, rishi, serif, sherd, shied, shier, shire, shred, siped, sired, speir, spied, spier, spire
6-letter words
fished, fisher, heishi, hiders, hispid, irides, irised, perish, pished, prides, prised, redips, reship, sherif, spider, spired
7-letter words
dishier, fishier, redfish
8-letter words
heirship
180 words found.
1 answer
2-letter words
ae, ah, am, as, at, eh, em, es, et, ha, he, hm, ma, me, sh, ta
3-letter words
ace, act, ash, ate, cam, cat, eat, ems, eta, eth, hae, hah, ham, has, hat, heh, hem, hes, het, mac, mae, mas, mat, met, sac, sae, sat, sea, sec, set, sha, she, shh, tae, tam, tas, tat, tea, tet, the
4-letter words
aces, ache, acme, acts, ahem, ates, came, cams, case, cash, cast, cate, cats, ceca, cham, chat, each, east, eath, eats, etas, etch, eths, haem, haes, haet, hahs, hame, hams, hash, hast, hate, hath, hats, heat, hehs, hems, hest, heth, hets, mace, mach, macs, maes, mash, mast, mate, math, mats, matt, meat, mesa, mesh, meta, meth, same, sate, scam, scat, seam, seat, sect, seta, sett, shah, sham, shea, stat, stem, stet, tace, tach, tact, tame, tams, tate, tats, team, teas, teat, test, teth, tets, thae, that, them
5-letter words
aches, acmes, cache, cames, caste, catch, cates, cesta, chams, chase, chasm, chats, cheat, chest, cheth, haems, haets, hames, haste, hatch, hates, heath, heats, heths, maces, mache, machs, match, mates, maths, matte, matts, meats, mecca, meths, satem, scatt, shame, state, steam, taces, tacet, tache, tachs, tacts, tames, taste, tates, teach, teams, teats, tecta, testa, teths, theca, theta
6-letter words
caches, cachet, chaste, cheats, chetah, cheths, heaths, maches, mattes, meccas, sachem, sachet, samech, scathe, schema, sheath, stacte, taches, tamest, thatch, thetas
7-letter words
cachets, catches, cathect, chetahs, hatches, hatchet, matches
8-letter words
cathects, hatchets, thatches
229 words found.
1 answer
2-letter words
be, bi, by, de, eh, er, es, he, hi, id, is, re, sh, si, uh, us, ye
3-letter words
bed, bey, bid, bis, bud, bur, bus, buy, bye, bys, deb, dei, des, dey, dib, die, dry, dub, due, dui, dye, edh, ers, heh, her, hes, hey, hid, hie, his, hub, hue, huh, ids, ire, reb, red, rei, res, rib, rid, rub, rue, rye, sei, ser, she, shh, shy, sib, sir, sri, sub, sue, urb, urd, use, yeh, yes
4-letter words
beds, beys, bide, bids, bier, bird, bise, bred, brie, bris, buds, buhr, burd, burs, bury, bush, busy, buys, byes, byre, debs, deys, dibs, dies, dire, dish, drib, drub, drys, dubs, dues, dure, dyer, dyes, edhs, hehs, heir, herb, herd, hers, hide, hied, hies, hire, hubs, hued, hues, hush, ibis, ides, ired, ires, irid, iris, rebs, reds, reis, resh, rhus, ribs, ride, rids, rise, rube, rubs, ruby, rude, rued, rues, ruse, rush, ryes, shed, shri, side, sire, sued, suer, surd, sure, urbs, urds, used, user, yird
5-letter words
bider, bides, biers, birds, birse, bride, bries, brush, buhrs, burds, burse, bused, bushy, buyer, byres, derby, dishy, dribs, dries, drubs, druse, dures, dyers, heirs, herbs, herby, herds, hider, hides, hired, hires, hurds, irids, rebid, rebus, rebuy, redub, resid, ribes, rides, rishi, rubes, rushy, sherd, shied, shier, shire, shred, shrub, shyer, sieur, sired, suber, usher, yirds
6-letter words
biders, birdie, brides, bruise, brushy, burdie, buried, buries, bushed, busher, busied, busier, buyers, debris, dryish, heishi, hiders, hubris, hushed, hybrid, hybris, irides, irised, rebids, rebuys, redubs, rubied, rubies, rushed
7-letter words
birdies, bruised, brushed, burdies, bushier, dishier, hurdies, hybrids, rudesby
254 words found.
1 answer
There are hundreds, it depends on what you're looking for. haaf haar habu hack hade hadj hads haed haem haen haes haet haff haft hagg hags haha hahs haik hail hain hair haji hajj haka hake haku hale half hall halm halo halt hame hams hand hang hank hant haps hard hare hark harl harm harn haro harp hart hash hask hasp hast hate hath hats haud haul haut have hawk hawm haws hays haze hazy head heal heap hear heat hebe hech heck heed heel heft hehs heid heil heir held hele heli hell helm helo help heme hemp hems hend hens hent heps hept herb herd here herl herm hern hero hers hery hesp hest hete heth hets hewn hews heys hick hide hidy hied hies high hike hila hild hili hill hilt hims hind hing hins hint hips hipt hire hish hisn hiss hist hits hive hiya hizz hoar hoas hoax hobo hobs hock hods hoed hoer hoes hogg hogh hogs hohs hoik hoke hoki hold hole holk holm holp hols holt holy home homo homy hond hone hong honk hons hood hoof hook hoon hoop hoos hoot hope hops hora hore horn hors hose hoss host hote hots houf hour hout hove howe howf howk howl hows hoya hoys hubs huck hued huer hues huff huge hugs hugy huia huic huis hula hule hulk hull huma humf hump hums hung hunh hunk huns hunt hups hurl hurt hush husk huso huss huts hwan hwyl hyed hyen hyes hyke hyla hyle hymn hype hypo hyps hyte
7 answers
4-letter words
aahs, aals, abas, abys, aces, acts, adds, ados, agas, ages, aids, ails, aims, ains, airs, aits, alas, albs, ales, alls, alms, alps, alts, amas, amis, amps, amus, anas, ands, anes, anis, ants, anus, apes, arbs, arcs, ares, arfs, arks, arms, arts, ates, auks, aves, avos, awes, awls, awns, axes, axis, ayes, baas, bads, bags, bals, bams, bans, bars, bats, bays, beds, bees, begs, bels, bens, bets, beys, bias, bibs, bids, bins, bios, bits, boas, bobs, bods, bogs, boos, bops, bots, bows, boys, bras, bris, bubs, buds, bugs, bums, buns, burs, buts, buys, byes, cabs, cads, cams, cans, caps, cars, cats, caws, cays, cees, ceps, chis, cobs, cods, cogs, cols, cons, coos, cops, cots, cows, coys, cris, crus, cubs, cuds, cues, cups, curs, cuts, cwms, dabs, dads, dags, dahs, dais, daks, dals, dams, daps, daws, days, debs, dees, dels, dens, devs, dews, deys, dibs, dies, digs, dims, dins, dips, dits, docs, does, dogs, dols, doms, dons, dors, dots, dows, drys, dubs, duds, dues, dugs, duns, duos, dups, dyes, ears, eats, ebbs, ecus, edhs, eels, effs, efts, eggs, egis, egos, ekes, elds, elks, ells, elms, emes, emus, ends, engs, eons, epos, eras, ergs, erns, eros, errs, etas, eths, eves, ewes, exes, eyas, eyes, fads, fags, fans, fats, fays, feds, fees, fehs, fems, fens, fets, feus, fibs, fids, figs, fils, fins, firs, fits, flus, fobs, foes, fogs, fons, fops, foys, fubs, fuds, fugs, funs, furs, gabs, gads, gaes, gags, gals, gams, gaps, gars, gats, gays, geds, gees, gels, gems, gens, gets, ghis, gibs, gids, gies, gigs, gins, gips, gnus, goas, gobs, gods, goes, goos, guls, gums, guns, guts, guvs, guys, gyms, gyps, haes, hags, hahs, hams, haps, hats, haws, hays, hehs, hems, hens, hers, hets, hews, hies, hins, hips, hits, hobs, hods, hoes, hogs, hols, hons, hops, hots, hows, hoys, hubs, hues, hugs, hums, huns, huts, hyps, ibis, ices, ichs, ides, ilks, ills, imps, inks, inns, ions, ires, iris, irks, iwis, jabs, jags, jams, jars, jaws, jays, jees, jets, jibs, jigs, jins, jobs, joes, jogs, jots, jows, joys, jugs, juts, kaas, kabs, kaes, kafs, kats, kays, keas, kefs, kegs, kens, keps, keys, khis, kids, kifs, kins, kips, kirs, kits, koas, kobs, kops, kors, kris, kues, kvas, labs, lacs, lads, lags, lams, laps, lars, lats, lavs, laws, lays, leas, lees, legs, leis, leks, lens, lets, leys, libs, lids, lies, lins, lips, lits, lobs, logs, loos, lops, lots, lows, lues, lugs, lums, luvs, lyes, macs, mads, maes, mags, mans, maps, mars, mats, maws, mays, mels, mems, mews, mhos, mibs, mids, migs, mils, mirs, moas, mobs, mods, mogs, mols, moms, mons, moos, mops, mors, mots, mows, muds, mugs, mums, muns, muts, nabs, nags, naos, naps, nays, nebs, nets, news, nibs, nils, nims, nips, nits, nobs, nods, noes, nogs, noms, nous, nows, nubs, nuns, nuts, oafs, oaks, oars, oats, obes, obis, ocas, odds, odes, offs, ohms, oils, okas, okes, olds, oles, ones, onus, oohs, oops, oots, opes, opts, opus, orbs, orcs, ores, orts, ouds, ours, outs, owes, owls, owns, oxes, oyes, pacs, pads, pals, pams, pans, paps, pars, pats, paws, pays, peas, pecs, peds, pees, pegs, pehs, pens, peps, pets, pews, phis, pias, pics, pies, pigs, pins, pips, pits, plus, pods, pois, pols, pons, pops, pots, pows, pros, pubs, puds, pugs, puls, puns, pups, purs, puts, pyas, pyes, qats, rads, rags, rams, raps, rats, raws, rays, rebs, recs, reds, rees, refs, regs, reis, rems, reps, rets, revs, rhos, rhus, rias, ribs, rids, rifs, rigs, rims, rins, rips, robs, rocs, rods, roes, roms, rots, rows, rubs, rues, rugs, rums, runs, ruts, ryas, ryes, tabs, tads, tags, tams, tans, taos, taps, tars, tats, taus, tavs, taws, teas, teds, tees, tegs, tels, tens, tets, tews, this, thus, tics, ties, tils, tins, tips, tits, tods, toes, togs, toms, tons, tops, tors, tots, tows, toys, tubs, tugs, tuis, tuns, tups, tuts, twas, twos, tyes, udos, ughs, ukes, ulus, umps, upas, urbs, urds, urns, urus, utas, vacs, vans, vars, vats, vaus, vavs, vaws, vees, vets, vies, vigs, vims, vins, voes, vows, vugs, wabs, wads, waes, wags, wans, waps, wars, wats, waws, ways, webs, weds, wees, wens, wets, whys, wigs, wins, wits, woes, woks, wons, woos, wots, wows, wyes, wyns, yaks, yams, yaps, yaws, yays, yeas, yens, yews, yins, yips, yobs, yods, yoks, yows, yuks, ywis, zags, zaps, zeds, zees, zeks, zigs, zips, zits, zoos
1 answer
There are 781 words that can be made out of "christopther" if you count all of the following:
This list is based on a version of the Enhanced North American Benchmark Lexicon dictionary.
cep
ceps
ceriph
ceriphs
cero
ceros
cesti
cestoi
cherish
chert
cherts
chest
cheth
cheths
chi
chip
chips
chiro
chiros
chirp
chirper
chirpers
chirps
chirr
chirre
chirres
chirrs
chis
chit
chits
chitter
chitters
choir
choirs
chop
chops
chore
chores
chorister
chose
chott
chotts
cipher
ciphers
cire
cires
cirrose
cis
cist
cite
citer
citers
cites
cither
cithers
coheir
coheirs
coir
coirs
cop
cope
coper
copers
copes
copier
copiers
copies
cops
copse
copter
copters
cor
core
corer
corers
cores
corps
corpse
corrie
corries
corse
corset
cos
coset
cosh
cosher
cosie
cosier
cost
coster
cot
cote
cotes
cots
cotter
cotters
cottier
cottiers
crept
crest
crier
criers
cries
cripe
cripes
cris
crisp
crisper
critter
critters
crop
crops
crore
crores
crosier
echo
echos
echt
eh
ephor
ephori
ephors
epic
epics
epoch
epochs
epos
er
eros
erotic
erotics
err
errs
ers
erst
es
escort
escot
esprit
estop
et
etch
eth
ethic
ethics
ethos
eths
etic
he
hector
hectors
heh
hehs
heir
heirs
heist
hep
her
heriot
heriots
heritor
heritors
hero
heroic
heroics
heros
hers
hes
hest
het
heth
heths
hets
hi
hic
hie
hies
hip
hips
hipshot
hipster
hire
hirer
hirers
hires
his
hist
hit
hitch
hitcher
hitchers
hitches
hither
hitherto
hits
hitter
hitters
ho
hoe
hoer
hoers
hoes
hoise
hoist
hoister
hop
hope
hoper
hopers
hopes
hops
horse
horsier
horst
horste
hose
hosier
hospice
host
hot
hotch
hotches
hots
hotter
hottie
hottish
I
ice
ices
ich
ichor
ichors
ichs
ire
ires
is
it
itch
itches
iter
ither
its
O
ocher
ochers
ochre
ochres
octet
octets
oe
oes
oh
ohs
oi
op
ope
opes
ophite
ophites
ops
opt
optic
optics
opts
or
orc
orchis
orcs
ore
ores
orphic
orrice
orrices
orris
ors
ort
orts
os
ose
osier
ostrich
other
others
otic
otter
otters
pe
pec
pech
pechs
pecs
peh
pehs
per
perch
peri
peris
perish
pert
pes
peso
pest
pesto
pet
petit
pets
petti
pettish
petto
phi
phis
phot
photic
photics
phots
pht
pi
pic
pice
picot
picots
pics
pie
pier
pierrot
pierrots
piers
pies
pis
pisco
pish
piso
piste
pit
pitch
pitcher
pitchers
pitches
pith
piths
pits
pitter
pitters
poet
poetic
poetics
poets
poh
poi
pois
poise
poiser
porch
porches
pore
pores
porrect
port
porter
porters
ports
pose
poser
posh
posher
posit
post
poster
postiche
pot
pother
pothers
potiche
potiches
pots
potsie
potter
potters
pottier
potties
precis
preriot
presort
prest
presto
pretor
pretors
price
pricer
pricers
prices
prier
priers
pries
priest
prior
priors
prise
pro
pros
prose
prosect
proser
prosier
prosit
prost
prosthetic
prostie
protect
protects
protei
protest
prothetic
protist
psi
ptotic
re
rec
recs
recti
recto
rector
rectors
rectorship
rectos
rei
reis
rep
repo
report
reports
repos
reposit
repot
repots
repro
repros
reps
res
rescript
resh
reship
reshot
resort
respot
rest
restitch
restrict
ret
retch
retort
retorts
retro
retros
rets
rhetor
rhetoric
rhetorics
rhetors
rho
rhos
rice
ricer
ricers
rices
rich
richer
riches
richest
riot
rioter
rioters
riots
rip
ripe
riper
ripes
ripest
ripost
riposte
rips
rise
riser
rite
rites
ritter
ritters
roc
rochet
rochets
rocs
roe
roes
roister
rope
roper
ropers
ropes
ropier
ropiest
rort
rose
roset
rosier
roster
rot
rotch
rotche
rotches
rote
rotes
roti
rotis
rots
rotte
rotter
rotters
rottes
scop
scope
score
scorer
scot
scoter
scottie
scrip
script
scripter
sec
sect
sector
sei
sepic
sept
septic
ser
set
sett
sh
she
shh
shier
ship
shire
shirr
shirt
shoe
shoer
shop
shore
short
shorter
shortie
shot
shote
shott
shri
si
sic
sice
sip
sipe
sir
sire
sit
site
sith
sitter
so
sop
soph
sopite
sore
sorer
sori
sort
sorter
sortie
sot
soth
spec
speir
spheric
spice
spicer
spier
spire
spirt
spit
spite
spitter
spore
sport
sporter
sportier
spot
spotter
spottier
sprier
sprit
sprite
sri
step
steric
stertor
stet
stich
stipe
stir
stirp
stitch
stitcher
stoic
stop
stope
stoper
stopt
store
stot
strep
stretch
strict
stricter
strip
stripe
striper
stript
strop
strophe
strophic
tech
territ
territs
test
tet
teth
teths
tets
the
their
theirs
theist
theorist
thetic
thio
thir
thirst
thirster
this
thither
tho
thoric
thorite
thorites
thorp
thorpe
thorpes
thorps
those
thresh
thrice
thrip
thrips
thro
throe
throes
ti
tic
tics
tie
tier
tiers
ties
tip
tips
tipster
tiptoe
tiptoes
tire
tires
tiro
tiros
tis
titer
titers
tithe
tither
tithers
tithes
titre
titres
to
tocher
tochers
toe
toes
toit
toits
top
tope
toper
topers
topes
toph
tophe
tophes
tophi
tophs
topi
topic
topics
topis
tops
tor
torc
torch
torches
torchier
torchiers
torchiest
torcs
tore
tores
tori
toric
tories
torr
tors
torse
torsi
tort
torte
tortes
torts
tosh
tost
tot
tote
toter
toters
totes
tother
tots
tret
trets
trice
tricep
triceps
trices
tricot
tricots
trier
triers
tries
trio
trios
triose
trip
tripe
tripes
tripos
trips
trisect
trisector
triste
trite
triter
troche
troches
trois
trop
trope
tropes
trophic
trophies
tropic
tropics
trot
troth
troths
trots
1 answer
2-letter words
eh, en, he, ho, ne, no, oe, oh, on
3-letter words
eke, eon, hen, hoe, hon, ken, nee, noh, oke, one
4-letter words
hoke, hone, honk, keen, keno, knee, okeh
26 words found.
2 answers
A lot such as:
2-letter words
eh, en, es, et, he, hi, ho, in, is, it, ne, no, oe, oh, on, op, os, oy, pe, pi, sh, si, so, ti, to, ye
3-letter words
ens, eon, ess, eth, heh, hen, hep, hes, het, hey, hie, hin, hip, his, hit, hoe, hon, hop, hot, hoy, hyp, ins, ion, its, net, nip, nit, noh, noo, nos, not, nth, oes, oho, ohs, one, ons, ooh, oot, ope, ops, opt, ose, peh, pen, pes, pet, phi, pht, pie, pin, pis, pit, poh, poi, pot, psi, pye, sei, sen, set, she, shh, shy, sin, sip, sis, sit, son, sop, sos, sot, soy, spy, sty, syn, ten, tet, the, tho, thy, tie, tin, tip, tis, tit, toe, ton, too, top, tot, toy, tye, yeh, yen, yep, yes, yet, yin, yip, yon
4-letter words
eons, epos, espy, eths, hehs, hens, hent, hest, heth, hets, hies, hins, hint, hips, hisn, hiss, hist, hits, hoes, hone, hons, hoop, hoot, hope, hops, hose, host, hots, hoys, hype, hypo, hyps, hyte, into, ions, ness, nest, nets, nett, nips, nits, noes, nope, nose, nosh, nosy, note, ones, onto, oohs, oops, oots, open, opes, opts, oses, otto, oyes, pehs, pein, pens, pent, peon, peso, pest, pets, phis, phon, phot, pies, pine, pins, pint, piny, pion, pish, pith, pits, pity, poet, pois, pone, pons, pony, pooh, poon, pose, posh, post, posy, pots, psis, psst, pyes, pyin, seis, sent, sept, sets, sett, shes, shin, ship, shoe, shoo, shop, shot, sine, sinh, sins, sipe, sips, site, sith, sits, snip, snit, snot, snye, sone, sons, soon, soot, soph, sops, soth, sots, soys, spin, spit, spot, step, stet, stey, stop, stye, syne, tens, tent, test, teth, tets, then, they, thin, thio, this, ties, tine, tins, tint, tiny, tips, ****, toes, toit, tone, tons, tony, toon, toot, tope, toph, topi, tops, tosh, toss, tost, tote, tots, toyo, toys, tyes, tyne, type, typo, yens, yeti, yett, yins, yipe, yips, yoni
5-letter words
eosin, estop, ethos, heist, hents, hests, heths, hints, hists, hoise, hoist, hones, honey, hooey, hoops, hoots, hooty, hopes, hosen, hoses, hosts, hypes, hypos, hyson, inept, inset, neist, nests, netop, netts, netty, nitty, noise, noisy, noose, noses, nosey, notes, onset, opens, opine, opsin, ottos, peins, penis, peons, peony, pesos, pesto, pests, petit, petti, petto, petty, phone, phono, phons, phony, photo, phots, piety, pines, piney, pinot, pinto, pints, pions, piste, piths, pithy, piton, poesy, poets, point, poise, pones, poohs, poons, poses, posit, posse, posts, potsy, potto, potty, pyins, senti, sepoy, septs, seton, setts, shent, shies, shine, shins, shiny, ships, shist, shoes, shone, shoon, shoos, shoot, shops, shote, shots, shott, sines, sinhs, sipes, sises, sissy, sites, snipe, snips, snits, snoop, snoot, snots, snyes, sones, sonsy, sooey, sooth, soots, sooty, sophs, sophy, soths, spent, spies, spine, spins, spiny, spite, spits, spoon, spots, stein, steno, steps, stets, sties, stint, stipe, stone, stony, stoop, stope, stops, stopt, stoss, styes, synth, tenth, tents, tenty, tepoy, tests, testy, teths, thein, thens, thine, thins, those, tines, tints, tipsy, tithe, toits, tones, toney, toons, tooth, toots, topes, tophe, tophi, tophs, topis, topoi, topos, totes, toyon, toyos, tynes, types, typos, tythe, yetis, yetts, yipes, yonis
6-letter words
enosis, entity, eosins, essoin, estops, ethion, ethnos, heists, hisses, hoises, hoists, honest, honeys, hooeys, hyphen, hysons, hyssop, insets, instep, netops, noesis, noises, nooses, noshes, onsets, ophite, opines, opsins, option, ossein, otiose, pestos, phones, phoney, phonos, phooey, photon, photos, physes, physis, phyton, pinots, pintos, pishes, pistes, piston, pitons, pointe, points, pointy, poises, poison, ponies, pontes, posies, posits, posses, posset, postin, potent, potion, potsie, pottos, ptoses, ptosis, pyoses, pyosis, python, sepoys, sepsis, setons, shiest, shines, shists, shoots, shotes, shotts, shyest, siphon, sitten, snipes, snoops, snoopy, snoots, snooty, snotty, sonsie, soothe, sooths, sopite, speiss, spines, spinet, spinto, spites, spoons, spoony, spotty, steins, stenos, stints, stipes, stithy, stones, stoney, stoops, stopes, synths, syphon, tenths, tepoys, testis, teston, theins, theist, thesis, tiptoe, tithes, tonish, tooths, toothy, tootsy, tophes, toshes, tosses, toyish, toyons, typhon, typist, tythes
7-letter words
essoins, ethions, hipness, hipshot, histone, honesty, hostess, hotness, hotshot, hottish, hyphens, hyssops, insteps, isohyet, isotone, isotope, isotopy, isotype, nosiest, oophyte, ophites, options, osseins, ostoses, ostosis, pettish, phoneys, phonies, photons, phytons, pintoes, pistons, pointes, poisons, poshest, possess, possets, postins, potions, potshot, potsies, potties, pythons, session, shotten, shyness, siphons, sithens, sonship, soonest, soothes, sophies, sophist, sopites, sottish, spinets, spinose, spintos, spooney, stepson, stonish, stypsis, synesis, syphons, tensity, testons, testoon, theists, tintype, tiptoes, toniest, tootses, tootsie, tosspot, toyshop, typhons, typhoon, typhose, typiest, typists
8-letter words
histones, hootiest, hotshots, hypnoses, hypnosis, isohyets, isophote, isotones, isotopes, isotypes, nepotist, oophytes, osteosis, phoniest, photoset, phthises, poshness, potshots, potstone, sessions, sonships, sonsiest, soothest, sootiest, sophists, spittoon, spooneys, spoonies, stenosis, stepsons, stoniest, synopses, synopsis, testoons, thiophen, tintypes, tootsies, topstone, tosspots, toyshops, typhoons
9-letter words
hypnotist, isophotes, nepotists, ostosises, photosets, potstones, pythoness, snoopiest, snootiest, sootiness, spittoons, spooniest, stonishes, stypsises, synthesis, theosophy, thiophens, topstones
10-letter words
hypnotists, hypothesis, possession, spottiness, synostoses, synostosis, synthesist
11-letter words
sottishness, synthesists, theosophist
12-letter words
theosophists
14-letter words
photosynthesis sorry it's not a lot (LOL) by EMILY CRUZ age 12 AND FRIENDS ( SO BYE )
4 answers
2-letter words
er, es, is, re, si, us
3-letter words
cis, cue, cur, ecu, ers, ess, ice, ire, rec, rei, res, rue, sec, sei, ser, sic, sir, sis, sri, sue, use
4-letter words
cess, cire, cris, crus, cues, cure, curs, cuss, ecru, ecus, ices, ires, recs, reis, rice, rise, rues, ruse, secs, seis, sers, sice, sics, sire, sirs, sris, suer, sues, sure, uric, user, uses
5-letter words
cires, cress, cries, cruse, cures, curie, curse, ecrus, issue, rices, rises, risus, ruses, sices, sieur, sires, sucre, suers, ureic, users
6-letter words
crises, cruise, cruses, cuisse, curies, curses, cusser, issuer, scries, sieurs, sucres
7-letter words
cruises
91 words found.
3 answers
jack, jet, Jake jolt, jock, joke, joker, Jan, tan, tear, take, an, ant, eat, learn, ear, near, lantern, a, eat, late, cat, lot, nat, not, no, later, can, locate, ocean, clank rack, rake, real, lake, note, to ten, lock, knot, ken, on, cake, rake, rock, tock, coke, noel, ale, antler, ran, role, act, ace, cent, rat, neck, let, oat, note, net, tole, to, toke, toe, tone, tack, tackle, talk, torn, tale, tea, lane, jean, lean = 75
11 answers
2-letter words
ae, ah, ai, an, ar, as, eh, en, er, es, ha, he, hi, in, is, na, ne, nu, pa, pe, pi, re, sh, si, uh, un, up, us
3-letter words
ace, ain, air, ais, ane, ani, ape, arc, are, ars, ash, asp, can, cap, car, cep, chi, cis, cue, cup, cur, ear, eau, ecu, ens, era, ern, err, ers, hae, hah, hap, has, heh, hen, hep, her, hes, hic, hie, hin, hip, his, hue, huh, hun, hup, ice, ich, ins, ire, nae, nah, nap, nip, nus, pac, pah, pan, par, pas, pea, peh, pen, per, pes, phi, pia, pic, pie, pin, pis, piu, psi, pun, pur, pus, rah, ran, rap, ras, rec, rei, rep, res, ria, rin, rip, rue, run, sac, sae, sap, sau, sea, sec, sei, sen, ser, sha, she, shh, sic, sin, sip, sir, spa, sri, sue, sun, sup, uns, ups, urn, use
4-letter words
aces, ache, acne, acre, ains, airn, airs, anes, anis, anus, aper, apes, apse, arch, arcs, ares, asci, cain, cane, cans, cape, caph, caps, care, carn, carp, cars, case, cash, ceps, chap, char, chia, chin, chip, chis, cine, cire, crap, cris, crus, cues, cups, cure, curn, curr, curs, cusp, each, earn, ears, ecru, ecus, epha, epic, eras, erns, errs, haen, haes, hahs, hair, haps, hare, harp, hash, hasp, heap, hear, hehs, heir, hens, hern, hers, hies, hins, hips, hire, hisn, hues, huic, hunh, huns, hush, ices, ichs, inch, ires, nape, naps, narc, neap, near, nice, nipa, nips, pace, pacs, pain, pair, pane, pans, pare, parr, pars, pase, pash, pean, pear, peas, pech, pecs, pehs, pein, pens, peri, phis, pian, pias, pica, pice, pics, pier, pies, pina, pine, pins, pirn, pish, prau, puce, puna, puns, pure, puri, purr, purs, push, race, rain, rani, rape, raps, rare, rase, rash, rasp, reap, rear, recs, rein, reis, reps, resh, rhea, rhus, rias, rice, rich, rins, ripe, rips, rise, ruer, rues, ruin, rune, runs, ruse, rush, sain, sane, sari, scan, scar, scup, sear, sera, shah, shea, shin, ship, shri, shun, sice, sine, sinh, sipe, sire, snap, snip, spae, span, spar, spec, spin, spue, spun, spur, such, suer, supe, sura, sure, unai, unci, upas, urea, uric, urns, ursa, user
5-letter words
aches, acnes, acres, airer, airns, anise, apers, aphis, apish, apres, arcus, areic, arise, arpen, arris, ashen, aspen, asper, aspic, aurei, aures, auric, auris, cains, cairn, caner, canes, caper, capes, caphs, carer, cares, carns, carpi, carps, carse, cause, ceria, chain, chair, chape, chaps, chare, charr, chars, chase, cheap, chias, china, chine, chins, chips, chirp, chirr, churn, churr, cines, cires, crane, crape, craps, crash, crier, cries, cripe, crisp, crura, cruse, crush, cuish, curer, cures, curia, curie, curns, currs, curse, earns, ecrus, ephah, ephas, epics, erica, escar, hairs, hance, hanse, hares, harps, harsh, heaps, hears, heirs, herns, heuch, hirer, hires, hunch, incur, incus, inure, nacre, napes, narcs, nares, naric, naris, neaps, nears, nicer, niche, nipas, nucha, nurse, pacer, paces, pains, pairs, paise, panes, panic, parch, parer, pares, pareu, paris, parrs, parse, pause, peach, peans, pears, pecan, pechs, peins, penis, perch, peris, phase, pians, picas, piers, pinas, pinch, pines, pirns, prahu, prase, praus, presa, price, prier, pries, prise, prune, puces, punas, punch, purer, purin, puris, purrs, purse, racer, races, rains, raise, rance, ranch, ranis, raper, rapes, raphe, rares, raser, reach, reaps, rears, recap, recur, reins, repin, reran, rerun, resin, rheas, ricer, rices, rinse, ripen, riper, ripes, risen, riser, ruche, ruers, ruins, runes, runic, saice, saner, sarin, sauce, sauch, scape, scare, scarp, scaup, scaur, scena, scrap, scrip, sepia, sepic, serac, serai, serin, shape, share, sharn, sharp, shear, shier, shine, shire, shirr, sieur, since, siren, sirra, sirup, snare, sneap, snipe, space, spahi, spare, spean, spear, speir, spica, spice, spier, spine, spire, sprue, spurn, sucre, super, supra, surah, surer, surra, unais, uncap, uncia, unhip, unrip, uraei, urare, urari, urase, ureas, ureic, urine, ursae, usher, usnea
6-letter words
achier, acinus, airers, anuric, apercu, apices, apneic, archer, arches, arisen, arpens, arshin, arsine, ashier, aspire, cahier, cairns, caners, capers, capris, carers, caries, carnie, carper, carpus, casein, casern, causer, cerias, ceriph, cesura, chaine, chains, chairs, chaise, chapes, chares, charrs, chaser, cheaps, chiaus, chinas, chines, chirps, chirre, chirrs, churns, churrs, cipher, cirrus, cranes, crapes, criers, cripes, cruise, curare, curari, curers, curiae, curies, curran, currie, curser, encash, enrich, eparch, ephahs, ericas, escarp, eschar, hances, harper, harpin, haunch, hausen, hernia, heuchs, hirers, hurrah, inarch, incase, inches, incurs, incuse, inrush, insure, inures, naches, nacres, niches, nuchae, nurser, pacers, painch, panics, panier, parers, pareus, paries, parish, parsec, parser, parure, paunch, pauser, pecans, pechan, perish, phasic, phrase, pincer, prahus, praise, prance, preach, precis, pricer, prices, priers, prince, pruner, prunes, puisne, punier, punish, purine, purins, purser, pusher, racers, rachis, racier, raiser, rances, rapers, raphes, raphis, rapier, rapine, rasher, rasper, rasure, recaps, recurs, rehash, repair, repins, reruns, reship, rhaphe, ricers, richen, richer, riches, rinser, ripens, ruches, ruiner, rupiah, rusher, rusine, saucer, scarer, scarph, scrape, search, secpar, seraph, shairn, shapen, shaper, sharer, sherpa, sheuch, shiner, shrine, sierra, sirrah, snarer, sniper, spacer, sparer, spicae, spicer, spirea, sprain, sprier, spruce, supine, uncaps, uncase, unciae, unhair, unripe, unrips, unship, uprear, uprise, uranic, urares, uraris, urchin, urines, ursine, usance
7-letter words
apercus, archers, archine, arcsine, arsenic, aspirer, auspice, cahiers, caprine, carnies, carpers, carries, cashier, ceriphs, chaines, charier, cherish, chirper, chirres, chirrup, churner, ciphers, crasher, crispen, crisper, cruiser, crusher, curares, curaris, currans, curries, currish, cushier, echinus, eparchs, hachure, harpers, harpies, harpins, harries, harshen, harsher, heparin, hernias, hunches, hurrahs, hurries, inphase, inscape, insurer, nephric, paniers, parches, parries, parures, pechans, penuchi, phrenic, pincers, pincher, pinches, praiser, prancer, prances, pricers, princes, pruners, puncher, punches, puranic, purines, pursier, pushier, rancher, ranches, rapiers, rapines, raspier, reincur, repairs, rhachis, rhaphes, richens, ruiners, rupiahs, rushier, saucier, scarier, scarper, scauper, scraper, scrapie, sharpen, sharper, sharpie, sierran, spacier, sphenic, spheric, spinach, sprucer, spurner, unhairs, unriper, unsharp, upraise, upreach, uprears, uprisen, upriser, urchins
8-letter words
archines, aspheric, cheapish, chirpers, chirrups, churners, curarine, eucharis, hachures, haunches, heparins, hierarch, huisache, inarches, painches, parchesi, paunches, penuchis, perisarc, pinchers, pinscher, prancers, precrash, punchers, punchier, punisher, purchase, ranchers, reincurs, seraphic, seraphin, sprucier, supercar, unrepair, upraiser
9-letter words
curarines, hierarchs, hurricane, paunchier, purchaser, pushchair, raunchier, superrich, unrepairs
10-letter words
hurricanes
984 words found.
1 answer
The words you can get are: * photo * synthesis * thesis * the * ten * sin * sine * then * yes * toe(s) * toy(s) * hot * top * is * sis * nose * no * to * too * this * this * sit * site * net(s) * set Those are all i can see at this moment ____________________________________________________
8 answers
According to SOWPODS (the combination of Scrabble dictionaries used around the world) there are 1080 words with the pattern ---S. That is, four letter words with 4th letter S. In alphabetical order, they are:
aahs
aals
abas
abbs
abos
abys
aces
acts
adds
ados
agas
ages
ahis
aias
aids
ails
aims
ains
airs
aits
akes
alas
albs
ales
alfs
alls
alms
alps
alts
amas
amis
amps
amus
anas
ands
anes
anis
anns
ants
anus
apes
apos
apps
apts
arbs
arcs
ards
ares
arfs
aris
arks
arms
arts
asks
asps
ates
aufs
auks
avas
aves
avos
awes
awls
awns
axes
axis
ayes
ayus
baas
bacs
bads
bags
bals
bams
bans
baps
bars
bass
bats
bays
beds
bees
begs
bels
bens
bets
beys
bias
bibs
bids
bigs
bins
bios
bits
boas
bobs
bods
bogs
bohs
bois
boks
boos
bops
bors
boss
bots
bows
boys
bras
bris
bros
brus
bubs
buds
bugs
bums
buns
burs
buss
buts
buys
byes
caas
cabs
cads
cags
cams
cans
caps
cars
cats
caws
cays
ceas
cees
cels
cens
ceps
cess
chas
chis
cids
cigs
cits
cobs
cods
cogs
cols
coms
cons
coos
cops
cors
coss
cots
cows
coys
cris
crus
cubs
cuds
cues
cups
curs
cuss
cuts
cwms
dabs
dads
daes
dags
dahs
dais
daks
dals
dams
dans
daps
daws
days
debs
dees
degs
dels
dens
deus
devs
dews
deys
dibs
dies
difs
digs
dims
dins
dips
diss
dits
divs
dobs
docs
dods
does
dogs
dohs
dols
doms
dons
doos
dops
dors
doss
dots
dows
doys
drys
dsos
dubs
duds
dues
dugs
duns
duos
dups
dyes
dzos
eans
ears
eats
eaus
ebbs
ecos
ecus
edhs
eels
effs
efts
eggs
egis
egos
eiks
ekes
elds
elfs
elks
ells
elms
elts
emes
emos
emus
emys
ends
enes
engs
eons
epos
eras
eres
ergs
erks
erns
eros
errs
eses
ests
etas
eths
euks
eves
evos
ewes
ewks
ewts
exes
eyas
eyes
faas
fabs
fads
fags
fahs
fans
fars
fats
faws
fays
feds
fees
fegs
fehs
feis
fems
fens
fess
fets
feus
feys
fibs
fids
figs
fils
fins
firs
fits
flus
fobs
foes
fogs
fohs
fons
fops
foss
fous
foys
fras
fris
fros
fubs
fuds
fugs
fums
funs
furs
fuss
gabs
gads
gaes
gags
gals
gams
gans
gaps
gars
gats
gaus
gays
geds
gees
gels
gems
gens
geos
gets
ghis
gibs
gids
gies
gigs
gins
gios
gips
gits
gjus
gnus
goas
gobs
gods
goes
gons
goos
goss
govs
goys
gris
gubs
gues
guls
gums
guns
gups
gurs
guts
guvs
guys
gyms
gyps
hads
haes
hags
hahs
hams
haps
hats
haws
hays
hehs
hems
hens
heps
hers
hets
hews
heys
hies
hims
hins
hips
hiss
hits
hoas
hobs
hods
hoes
hogs
hohs
hols
homs
hons
hops
hors
hoss
hots
hows
hoys
hubs
hues
hugs
huis
hums
huns
hups
huss
huts
hyes
hyps
ibis
ices
ichs
ides
iggs
ilks
ills
imps
inks
inns
ions
ires
iris
irks
isms
isos
itas
iwis
jabs
jags
jaks
jams
japs
jars
jass
jaws
jays
jees
jess
jets
jews
jibs
jigs
jins
jobs
joes
jogs
jols
jors
joss
jots
jows
joys
juds
jugs
juts
kaas
kabs
kaes
kafs
kais
kaks
kans
kats
kaws
kays
keas
kebs
keds
kefs
kegs
keks
kens
keps
kets
keys
khis
kids
kifs
kins
kips
kirs
kiss
kits
koas
kobs
kois
kons
kops
kors
koss
kows
kris
kues
kvas
kyes
kyus
labs
lacs
lads
lags
lahs
lams
laps
lars
lass
lats
lavs
laws
lays
leas
lees
legs
leis
leks
lens
leps
less
lets
leys
lias
libs
lids
lies
ligs
lins
lips
lits
lobs
lods
logs
loos
lops
loss
lots
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1 answer
Child care is an issue of significant public interest for several reasons. The dramatic increase in the labor force participation of mothers is the most important factor affecting the demand for child care in the last quarter century. Currently, in a majority of American families with children--even those with very young children--the mother is in the paid labor force. Similarly, an increasingly significant trend affecting the demand for child care is the proportion of mothers who are the sole or primary financial supporters of their children, either because of divorce or because they never married. In addition, child care has been a significant issue in recent debates over how to move welfare recipients toward employment and self-sufficiency; mothers on welfare may have difficulty entering the labor force because of child care problems. Finally, the impact of child care on the children themselves is an issue of considerable interest, with ongoing discussion of whether low-income children benefit from participation in programs with an early childhood development focus. Concerns that child care may be in short supply, not of good enough quality, or too expensive for many families escalated during the late 1980s into a national debate over the nature and extent of the Nation's child care problems and what, if any, Federal interventions would be appropriate. The debate culminated in the enactment of legislation in 1990 that expanded Federal support for child care by establishing two new State child care grant programs. The programs--the Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) and the At-Risk Child Care Program--were enacted as part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-508). These programs were preceded by enactment of a major welfare reform initiative, the Family Support Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-485), which authorized expanded child care assistance for welfare families and families leaving welfare. In 1996, as part of welfare reform legislation (the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, Public Law 104-193), these programs were consolidated into an expanded Child Care and Development Block Grant (sometimes referred to as the Child Care and Development Fund), which provides increased Federal funding and serves both low-income working families and families attempting to transition off welfare through work. This chapter provides background information on the major indicators of the demand for and supply of child care, the role of standards and quality in child care, a summary description of the major Federal programs that fund child care services, and reported data from the largest of those sources of funding, the Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF). EMPLOYMENT AND MARITAL STATUS OF MOTHERS The dramatic increase in the labor force participation of mothers is commonly regarded as the most significant factor fueling the increased demand for child care services. A person is defined as participating in the labor force if she is working or seeking work. In 1947, just following World War II, slightly over one-fourth of all mothers with children between the ages of 6 and 17 were in the labor force. By contrast, in 1999 over three-quarters of such mothers were labor force participants. The increased labor force participation of mothers with younger children has also been dramatic. In 1947, it was unusual to find mothers with a preschool-age child in the labor force--only about 12 percent of mothers with children under the age of 6 were in the labor force. But in 1999, over 64 percent of mothers with preschool-age children were in the labor force, a rate more than 5 times higher than in 1947. Women with infant children have become increasingly engaged in the labor market as well. Today, 60 percent of all mothers whose youngest child is under age 2 are in the labor market, while in 1975 less than one-third of all such mothers were labor force participants. The rise in the number of female-headed families has also contributed to increased demand for child care services. Single mothers maintain a greater share of all families with children today than in the past. Census data show that in 1970, 11 percent of families with children were headed by a single mother, compared with 26 percent of families with children in 1998. While the number of two-parent families with children did not fluctuate much between 1970 and 1998 (25.8 and 25.7 million respectively), the number of female-headed families with children almost tripled, increasing from 3.4 million families in 1970 to 9.8 million in 1998. These families headed by mothers were a major source of growth in the demand for child care. Mothers' attachment to the labor force differs depending on the age of their youngest child and marital status. Among those with children under 18, divorced women have the highest labor force participation rate (84.0 percent), followed by separated women (77.3 percent). The labor force participation rate for never-married mothers with children under 18 grew to over 73 percent in 1999, a 21 percent increase over the 1996 rate. In 1996, never-married mothers trailed all other marital status groups (with children under 18) in labor force participation, but by 1999, the participation rate for never-married mothers surpassed married women (70 percent) and widowed mothers (63 percent). Labor force participation rates tend to increase regardless of the marital status of the mother as the age of the youngest child increases. Among all women with children under 18, 61 percent of those with a child under 3 participate, 70 percent of those whose youngest child is between 3 and 5 participate, and 79 percent of those whose youngest child is between 14 and 17 participate. While there has been a substantial increase in the proportion of mothers in the labor force, the data can be misleading without examining employment status. Although 72 percent of mothers participated in the labor force in 1999, 50 percent worked full time and 18 percent worked part time (less than 35 hours per week). Therefore, in 1999, about 30 percent of mothers were actively looking for work, but not employed. Forty-one percent of mothers with children under age 6 worked full time, and 19 percent worked part time. The 1996 welfare reform law's new emphasis on work is likely to have affected the employment status of the never-married mother subgroup most significantly. Overall, the percent of all mothers (with children under 18) employed full time grew from slightly over 47 percent in 1996 to just over 50 percent in 1999. Within the subgroup of never-married mothers, the 3 year period was accompanied by a larger increase in full-time employment. In 1996, about 35 percent of never-married mothers with children under 18 were employed full time. By 1999, the figure had increased to over 48 percent. The percent of never-married mothers working full time with children under age 6 had grown comparably, increasing from almost 29 percent in 1996 to over 41 percent in 1999. Within the divorced mothers subgroup, there were increases between the years, but the differences are not nearly as large as within the never-married subgroup. In 1999, the percent of all divorced mothers employed full time with children under 18 had reached almost 69 percent, a 2 percentage point increase since 1996. For those with children under 6, over 60 percent worked full time in 1999. The employment status of married mothers is shown to have changed little or not at all since 1996, depending on full- or part-time status, and age of children. CHILD CARE ARRANGEMENTS USED BY WORKING MOTHERS Data are collected periodically by the U.S. Census Bureau on the types of child care arrangements used by families with working mothers. The most recent U.S. Census Bureau statistics available on child care arrangements are based on data collected by the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) for the fall of 1995 (although the Census Bureau has not published a report with these data, the data are available on their Website at www.census.gov/DES/www/welcome.htm). Because the interview questions obtain information about both paid and unpaid substitute care used while the mother works, it provides information on categories of care that generally are not considered child care, such as care provided by the father, or care by a sibling. The 1995 data indicate that the types of child care arrangements used by families while the mother works vary depending on the age of the child, as well as the mother's work schedule (full- or part-time), marital status, and family income. In the 1995 SIPP survey, parents were asked to estimate the number of hours a child spends in any of several care arrangements during a week, rather than to identify the child's ``primary'' care arrangement while the mother worked. The primary child care arrangement is based on the arrangement in which a child spends the most hours in a typical week. In the case of a child who spends equal time between arrangements, the child would have more than one primary arrangement. Over 36 percent of families of preschoolers with working mothers in 1995 primarily relied on care in another home by a relative, family day care provider, or other nonrelative, compared to almost 26 percent of families whose primary arrangement was an organized child care facility. These data mark a change from the fall 1994 survey results, which revealed that over 30 percent of families used organized child care as their primary arrangement. However, some of the decline in the use of organized child care facilities and increase in care out of another's home may reflect a change in the 1995 survey, which more clearly defined care types, by asking specifically about family day care providers (providers caring for more than one child outside the child's home), as distinct from organized group day care. Relative care, either in the child's home or the relative's home, was used by 21 percent of families of preschool children with employed mothers. Over one-fifth of families with young children did not rely on others for help with child care arrangements while the mother worked, but instead used parental care (22 percent), especially care by fathers (almost 17 percent). Only 5 percent of families relied on care provided in the child's home by a nonrelative. Preschool children of part-time employed mothers were much more likely to be cared for by a parent (31 percent), than by an organized child care facility (21 percent), and also more likely to be cared for by a relative, family provider, or nonrelative in another home (29 percent). Mothers employed full time were more likely to use family day care providers (19 percent) and organized day care centers (20 percent) than any other form of care. Care by grandparents, either in or out of the child's home, was the next most utilized category for full-time (14 percent), and part-time employed mothers (18 percent). The types of afterschool arrangements used in 1995 for school-age children by working mothers, as well as cases in which there were no arrangements used at all. The 1995 survey asked more questions about arrangements than in earlier years (for instance, it specifically asked about care by a sibling), and this may account for some of the increase in the ``care in child's home'' category. In 1993, 11 percent of children age 5-14 were being cared for afterschool in the child's home, whereas in 1995 this figure had increased to almost 20 percent. Of those children age 5-14 with employed mothers in 1995, over 10 percent were cared for by a sibling (over 3 percent by a sibling under age 15). Afterschool care by fathers also increased substantially from 1993 to 1995. In 1993, just over 11 percent of children were primarily cared for by fathers during afterschool time, compared to 21 percent in 1995. A total of 2.5 million school-age children (11.6 percent of children age 5-14) were reported to be in self-care or to be unsupervised by an adult for some time while their mothers were working. It is not known if the children in the ``no care mentioned'' category were unsupervised, or if other factors may account for their not being reported in a child care arrangement, such as travel time from school. Regardless, the 1995 survey instrument appears to have been more effective in identifying types of child care arrangements, since only 1.6 percent of children reportedly fall in the ``no care mentioned'' category, a sharp decline from 46 percent in the 1993 survey. The 9.2 percent of poor children being cared for in the child's home by a relative or nonrelative in 1995 represents a marked decrease from over 18 percent reported in 1994. The percent of nonpoor children in this category remained unchanged at 14 percent. Nonpoor children in 1995 were more likely than poor children to be cared for in another home by either a relative, family day care provider, or other nonrelative. Poor families were more likely than nonpoor families to not mention any regular arrangement (10 percent versus 1 percent). The U.S. Census Bureau data discussed above reflect child care arrangements in the fall of 1995. More recently, data from the 1997 National Survey of America's Families (NSAF), collected by the Urban Institute, can be used to examine primary child care arrangements used by children under 5 with employed mothers nationally, and across 12 individual States. Nationwide, 41 percent of preschool children with employed mothers are in care for 35 or more hours per week (Capizzano ; Adams, 2000a). One-quarter are in care for 15-34 hours per week, 16 percent for 1-14 hours per week, and 18 percent spend no hours in nonparental child care. For preschool children with mothers employed full time, the number of children in full-time care (35 or more hours) increases to 52 percent. Children that are 3 and 4 years old are slightly more likely to be in full-time care than younger preschoolers (44 percent versus 39 percent). Children in high-income families are almost equally as likely to spend 35 or more hours a week in child care as low-income children (42 percent versus 40 percent), although high-income children are more likely than low-income children to be in part-time care (42 percent versus 37 percent). Twenty-three percent of low-income children are reported to spend no hours in nonparental care, compared to 16 percent of high-income children. According to the 1997 NSAF, 32 percent of preschool children use center-based child care as their primary arrangement, while about half that number (16 percent) are in family child care (Capizzano, Adams, ; Sonenstein, 2000). About 6 percent are primarily cared for in the child's home by a babysitter or nanny. Twenty-three percent of children under 5 are cared for primarily by a relative, either inside or outside the child's home, while almost a quarter (24 percent) of children are in the care of a parent. The analysis of individual States revealed that there is considerable State variation in the use of specific primary child care arrangements. The Urban Institute's analysis also examined how child care arrangements vary according to both age of child and family income. The survey data indicate that nationally, infants and toddlers are more likely to be cared for by relatives (27 percent) and parents (27 percent) than to be in center-based care (22 percent) or family child care (17 percent). As preschoolers grow older (age 3 and 4), use of relative and parent care decreases (17 and 18 percent respectively), and center-based care becomes the most commonly used primary arrangement (45 percent). Use of family child care remains relatively steady at 14 percent for 3- and 4-year-olds. At the national level, children under age 5 in families below 200 percent of poverty are less likely than high-income children to use center-based care as a primary arrangement (26 percent versus 35 percent). Relative care and parent care are used equally by low-income families (28 percent each), and more often than by high-income families, of which 20 percent use relative care and 21 percent parent care. Low- and high-income children are almost equally likely to use family child care as their primary arrangement (14 and 17 percent respectively). In addition to looking at the primary child care arrangements for children under 5, Urban Institute researchers used the 1997 NSAF to examine the number of arrangements used to care for a child, and the hours that are spent in each type of arrangement. Nationally, 38 percent of children under 5 combine more than one child care arrangement each week (Capizzano ; Adams, 2000b). Of those, 8 percent combine three or more arrangements. The remaining 62 percent have only one child care arrangement. Children under age 3 are less likely to have multiple child care arrangements than 3- and 4-year-olds (34 percent versus 44 percent). Children aged 3 and 4 are three times as likely to be in three or more care arrangements. Of the children in multiple arrangements, most use a combination of formal and informal care, regardless of age or income. Children from low- and high-income families are almost equally likely to be in multiple child care arrangements (37 and 40 percent respectively). As seen with primary arrangements, there is considerable State variation in the use of multiple arrangements. CHILD CARE COSTS Research studies have found that the majority of families with working mothers and preschool children purchase child care services. The tendency to purchase care and the amount spent on care, both in absolute terms and as a percent of family income, generally varies by the type of child care used, family type (married or single mothers), and the family's economic status. The most recent data on child care expenditures by families are from the Survey of Income and Program Participation for the fall of 1995. These data show that 64 percent of families with employed mothers paid for child care for their preschool-aged children. Nonpaid child care was most typically provided by relatives. Families with mothers employed full time were more likely to purchase care for their young children than those with mothers working part time. Among families with full-time working mothers, 73 percent paid for child care, compared to 50 percent of families with mothers employed part time. Likewise, families with higher incomes were more likely to purchase care than families with lower incomes, with the exception of families with monthly incomes between $1,200 and $3,000. For example, 71 percent of families with monthly incomes of $4,500 or more purchased child care in the fall of 1995, while only 60 percent of families with monthly incomes of less than $1,200 purchased care. Average weekly costs per family for all preschool-aged children were $83 in 1995 for those families that purchased care. Married-couple families devoted a smaller percentage of their income to child care (9 percent) than single-parent families (22 percent), but their child care expenditures were nonetheless greater ($87 per week) than those of single-parent families (about $70 per week). While poor families spend fewer dollars for child care than higher income families, they spend a much greater percentage of their family income for child care. Thus, poor families spent only $60 per week, but this amount represented 36 percent of their income. By contrast, nonpoor families spent $85 per week on care, but this amount was only 10 percent of their income. A December 1997 survey of the cost of child care for a 4-year-old in urban child care centers across the country, conducted by the Children's Defense Fund (Adams ; Schulman, 1998) found that in every State, the average child care tuition exceeds $3,000 per child, and is over $5,000 per child in 17 States. SUPPLY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD CARE PROVIDERS Supply of Providers The variety of child care arrangements used by families has been discussed above, however, the studies of arrangements do not include estimates of the number of available providers. A comprehensive study of licensed centers, early education programs, center-based programs exempt from State or local licensing (such as programs sponsored by religious organizations or schools), and licensed family day care providers has not been conducted since the U.S. Department of Education's Profile of Child Care Settings Study was released in 1991. That study reported that approximately 80,000 center-based early education and care programs were providing services in the United States at the beginning of 1990 (Kisker, Hofferth, Phillips, ; Farquhar, 1991). A less extensive, but more recent study, focusing only on regulated child care centers, was released by the Children's Foundation in January 2000. The study reported that the number of regulated child care centers in the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands totals 106,246 (Children's Foundation, 2000). This is a 3.5 percent increase from the Foundation's 1999 study's total, and nearly a 19 percent increase from the total published by the Children's Foundation's first study of centers in 1991. The 2000 study notes that the definition of regulated child care center varies by State or territory. In 28 States, the number of regulated child care centers includes nursery schools, preschools, prekindergartens and religiously affiliated centers. In the remaining States and territories, the definition is less inclusive. For example, some States exclude nursery schools or religiously affiliated centers in their count. The Children's Foundation also conducts studies on family child care providers (as opposed to centers). Their 1999 report indicates that there are 290,667 regulated family child care homes, of which 249,622 are family day care homes (caring for up to 6 children) and 41,045 large group child care homes (in which providers generally care for 7-12 children). It is assumed by child care researchers that the number of unregulated family day care providers far exceeds the number of regulated family providers, though it is difficult to determine by how much. At the time of the aforementioned Profile of Child Care Settings Study of 1991, the number of regulated family day care homes represented an estimated 10-18 percent of the total number of family day care providers. The U.S. Census Bureau also collects data on the number of child care businesses in the United States. For a historical look at child care businesses in the early 1990s, a 1998 report used Census of Service Industries (CSI) data to provide information on the number and characteristics of child care businesses in 1992 (Casper ; O'Connell, 1998). ``Child care businesses'' are defined as organized establishments engaged primarily in the care of infants or children, or providing prekindergarten education, where medical care or delinquency correction is not a major component. Not included in this definition are babysitting services or Head Start Programs that are coordinated with elementary schools. Based on the Census of Service Industries data, the number of incorporated child care centers doubled from 25,000 in 1977 to 51,000 in 1992. Wages of Child Care Center Staff No single data source provides comprehensive information on wages of child care workers. However, occupational data collected by the Department of Labor, when complemented by survey information gathered by organizations interested in child care issues, begin to paint a picture of the status of child care wages in the United States. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) collects wage data for 764 occupations, as surveyed by the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) Program. However, readers should be aware that the occupational categories create a misleading division in the child care work force. Center-based child care staff are described by the OES survey as either ``preschoolteacher'' or ``child care worker,'' distinguishing the former as an individual who instructs children up to age 5 in developmental activities within a day care center, child development facility, or preschool, and the latter as a person who performs tasks such as dressing, feeding, bathing, and overseeing play of children. This division of tasks does not necessarily occur in actual child care settings, and therefore the survey's occupational group assignments, and wage distinctions made between those groups, should be interpreted with some caution. Nevertheless, the OES survey provides a general sense of wages within the child care field. Based on BLS data and OES survey results from 1997, the median hourly wage of a center-based ``child care worker'' was $7.03, and a ``preschoolteacher,'' $9.09. Both these wages are considerably higher than the median hourly wage for family child providers, who, based on 1997 Current Population Survey data, earn an estimated median wage of $4.69 per hour [based on a 55-hour week, which the Center for Child Care Workforce (1999) reports is the typical work week for U.S. family child care providers]. The National Child Care Staffing Study (NCCSS), originally launched in 1988, and most recently updated in 1997, provides additional information on child care center staff (Whitebook, Howes, ; Phillips, 1998). Information on wages and characteristics of center staff was collected from 158 full-day, full-year, State licensed child care centers in five metropolitan areas around the country. In the study's findings on trends in hourly wages for center-based child care staff, over the 10 year period of the study, wages of child care center workers have remained relatively stagnant. Staff Turnover Like many low-wage industries, turnover among the child care work force has been historically high. The NCCSS has tracked worker turnover and stability beginning with its initial study in 1988. In 1988, center directors in the sample reported a 41 percent average rate of annual turnover of teaching staff. In 1992, they reported average annual turnover of 26 percent for the year prior to the survey interview. By 1997, the rate had risen to 31 percent for all teaching staff, and one-fifth of centers reported losing half or more of their teaching staff in the previous year. The 10 percentage point decrease in turnover rates between 1988 and 1997 should be analyzed with caution, however, as the sample size of the NCCSS study dropped from 227 to 158. According to the study directors, a disproportionate number of the centers reporting the highest turnover in 1988 had closed by the time of the 1997 survey, leaving a sample of centers with potentially lower than average turnover rates for their areas. The issue of stability among centers themselves is not specifically addressed in the NCCSS study, however its authors do mention increasing reports of centers closing due to an insufficient supply of trained teachers. Better job opportunities and higher wages in other fields, due to a strong economy, have been identified as recent major causes of turnover. Ninety-three percent of directors reported taking more than 2 weeks to find replacements for departing teaching staff and over one-third (37 percent) reported taking over a month to do so. The effect of staff turnover on children is one of several topics that continues to receive attention during ever-growing discussions of how to measure child care quality. Employing Welfare Recipients as Child Care Workers Passage of welfare reform legislation in 1996, and its emphasis on moving recipients into work, created expectations of an increase in demand for child care, and recipients themselves were identified by some as a potential new source of child care workers. The 1997 NCCSS therefore gathered information from child care directors regarding the employment of welfare recipients (recipients of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) as center staff. The study found that approximately one-third (35 percent) of the child care centers in the sample employ Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) recipients, that those centers employing TANF recipients are more likely to pay lower wages across all positions, and that those centers experience higher teaching staff turnover. While the median wage reported for TANF workers is $5.50 per hour (in 1997) compared to the $6 per hour for all entry-level teaching assistants, 60 percent of centers pay TANF workers the same as their lowest-paid assistants, 23 percent pay them more, and 18 percent pay them less. Almost half (48 percent) of the centers employing TANF recipients report providing on-site training for TANF employees, 18 percent use community-based training programs, and 16 percent of the programs offer college credit-bearing training. CHILD CARE STANDARDS AND QUALITY Regulation and Licensing Regulation and licensing of child care providers is conducted primarily at the State and local levels, although the extent to which the Federal Government should play a role in this area has been a topic of debate for many years (see below). Licensing and regulation serves as a means of defining and enforcing minimum requirements for the legal operation of child care environments in which children will be safe from harm. There is no uniform way in which States and/or territories regulate child care centers, preschools, nursery schools, prekindergartens, and/or religiously affiliated child care centers. All States and territories do, however, require these center-based types of care (as opposed to family child care providers) to be regulated through licensing or registration. In the case of family day care providers, most States exempt certain providers--typically those serving smaller numbers of children from licensing or regulation. As mentioned in the earlier discussion of child care supply, the Children's Foundation survey found that there were 290,667 regulated family child care providers in the States and territories in 1999. If estimates from the 1990 child care settings study are applied, this number may represent only 10-18 percent of family child care, with the remaining facilities being unregulated. The count of centers that are regulated (meaning licensed or certified) totals 106,246 according to the Children's Foundation 2000 study. Research on Child Care Quality As women's labor force participation has grown over the past several decades, concerns about child care quality have increased. Highly publicized research on early brain development in infants and young children (under age 3) has drawn attention to what role child care may play in children's cognitive and social development. The relationship between quality of child care and outcomes for children is of increasing interest to parents, researchers, and policymakers. A growing body of research examines questions such as how to define the elements that correspond to quality child care, how to measure those elements, and ultimately, their effects on children both in the short- and long-term. One comprehensive study of connections between child care and early childhood development is part of an ongoing project conducted by a team of researchers supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD, 1999), of the National Institutes of Health. The broad goal of the NICHD study, started in 1991, is to collect data on an ongoing basis from a sample of children and their families (located in 10 areas across the United States) to answer a range of questions about the relationship between child care characteristics and experiences, and children's developmental outcomes. The children and families in the study's sample vary in socioeconomic background, race, family structure, and type of child care used. The study design takes into account characteristics of the family and its environment to gain a more complete picture of the contribution that child care characteristics and experiences themselves make to children's development, above and beyond the contribution of the family environment. Even so, not all characteristics are observed, and the ability to completely disentangle all of the characteristics (both of the parents and the child) is difficult, if not impossible, in such a study. Children in the study are not randomly assigned to child care settings of varying degrees of quality, but are instead placed in settings of their parents' selection. The selection of care in and of itself may reflect contributing variables--characteristics of the parents, children, and environment--that are not fully observed in the study. Likewise, a child's developmental outcomes in a particular setting may reflect the child's characteristics as much as the setting's quality. Although the NICHD study attempts to distinguish among some of these factors, the ability to interpret the results is somewhat constrained by selection bias. The findings showed that in general, family characteristics and the quality of the mother's relationship with her child were stronger predictors of the child's development than were the characteristics of child care. The family characteristics such as income and mother's education were strong predictors of children's outcomes, for both children cared for solely by their mothers and children in extensive nonparental child care. The study did find a modest but consistent association between quality of nonparental child care over the first 3 years of life and children's cognitive and language development, regardless of family background. In this case, quality child care was defined as positive care giving and language stimulation; i.e., how often providers spoke to children, asked questions, and responded to children's questions. The NICHD researchers also analyzed the more structural elements of child care in centers--elements that are generally regulated by the States, but to varying degrees, such as child-staff ratio, group size, and teacher training and education. The researchers used recommended guidelines developed jointly by the American Public Health Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics to evaluate the degree to which standards were being met by centers used by families in the study. Twelve percent of the study's children were enrolled in child care centers at 6 months, and 38 percent at age 3. Findings indicate that the children in the centers that met some or all of the guidelines had better language comprehension and school readiness than the children who were in centers that did not meet the guidelines. There were also fewer behavioral problems for children age 2 and 3 in the centers that met the guidelines. The researchers have continued to follow the children in the sample, and will release findings from the assessment of the children at 54 months of age, and again in first grade. Like other studies that examine the relationship between child care and developmental outcomes, the NICHD research aims to determine not just whether there are concurrent and short-term effects of child care on children's development, but long-term effects as well. The study did not attempt to measure the quality of care offered by family child care providers or relatives according to the same set of guidelines used for center-based care. The most recent indepth observational study of family child care and relative care was published in 1994 by the Families and Work Institute. The study examined the care offered by 226 providers in 3 different communities in California, Texas, and North Carolina (Galinsky et al., 1994). Nonregulated family care providers may be nonregulated because they care for few enough children to be exempt from State regulation requirements, or, as the 1994 study found in their sample, 81 percent of the 54 nonregulated providers were illegally nonregulated, due to the fact that they were actually providing care for a number of children over their State's limit. The quality of all types of family and relative care was determined according to measurements such as the setting's safety and the sensitivity and responsiveness of providers to the children. The study found that only 9 percent of the homes in the study sample were rated as good quality, while 56 percent were rated as adequate, and 35 percent inadequate. The researchers found that quality appeared to be higher when providers were trained and when they were caring for three to six children rather than one or two. As important, if not more so, in determining quality was whether the provider was committed to taking care of children, and had a sense that their work was important; participated in family child care training; thought ahead about the children's activities; was regulated; and followed standard business and safety practices. In the case of relative care, an important factor in the quality of the child's experience was whether the relative caring for the children did so out of desire, necessity, or both. The Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes (1995, 1999) in Child Care Centers study conducted by researchers from four universities beginning in 1993, analyzes the influence of ``typical'' center-based child care on children's development during their preschool years and into elementary school. The ``typical'' centers were represented by a random sample of 401 full-day child care centers, half of them for-profit, half nonprofit, in regions of 4 States: California, Colorado, Connecticut, and North Carolina. Data on the quality and cost of services were collected, as well as data on the developmental progress of a sample of children in the selected centers. Findings from the first phase of the study were released in 1995, and indicated that the quality of child care offered in over three-quarters of these ``typical'' centers in the United States did not meet ``high standards'' according to the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, which ranges from 1 (``low quality'') to 7 (``high quality''). Eleven percent of centers in the sample scored below 3 (``minimally acceptable''). The researchers found that the quality of child care is primarily related to higher staff-to-child ratios, staff education, and administrators' previous experience. Teacher wages and education were also generally higher in higher quality centers. Like the NICHD study, the 1995 Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study also found that centers meeting higher licensing standards provided higher quality care. In addition to examining the status of quality in the centers, the researchers wanted to determine what effects, if any, the quality of care had on children's development. The study's initial findings in 1995 indicated that children's cognitive and social development are positively related to the quality of their child care experience. This proved to be the case even after taking into account factors related to family background and associated with children's development (such as maternal education); the children in the low-quality care still scored lower on measures of cognitive and social development. The findings from the second phase of the study, released in 1999, indicate that there are long-term effects of child care quality on children's development. Similar to the NICHD results, this study indicated that the impact of child care quality on children's development was modest, but consistent, and applied even after taking into account child and family characteristics. The extent to which the effects of quality child care and other early childhood program experiences ``fade out'' over time has long been an area of interest for researchers studying the connection between child care programs and children's development. One of the longest-running research studies in this area is known as the Abecedarian Project, which began in the early 1970s. The project design consisted of a controlled study in which 57 infants, all from low-income families in North Carolina, were randomly assigned to an experimental group that would receive year-round, all-day educational child care/preschool emphasizing cognitive, language, and adaptive behavior skills (Burchinal et al., 1997; Campbell ; Ramey, 1995). The control group of 54 infants received nutritional supplements and supportive social services (as did the experimental group), but did not receive the educational intervention emphasizing language, cognitive, and social development. The Abecedarian Project began in early infancy, and the children received the educational ``treatment'' for 5 years, a longer period than other programs. This study also differs from those discussed earlier in that it focuses solely on disadvantaged, low-income children. Early findings of the project showed that from the age of 18 months through age 5 (the end of the program), children in the treatment group had higher scores on mental tests than children in the control group. In the primary grades through middle adolescence, children from the treatment group scored significantly higher on reading and math tests. Through age 15, the treatment group continued to score higher on mental tests, although the gap between the two groups had narrowed. Most recently, the project's researchers completed a followup study of the project's participants (104 of the original 111) at age 21 (Campbell, 1999). Results showed that the 21-year-olds who had been in the treatment group had significantly higher mental test scores than those from the control group. Likewise, reading and math scores were higher for the treatment group, as had been the case since toddlerhood. Due to the longevity of the project, researchers were also able to look for differences in areas such as college enrollment and employment rates. The followup interviews revealed that about 35 percent of the young adults in the treatment group had either graduated from or were attending a 4 year college or university at the time of the assessment, compared to 14 percent of the control group. A team of researchers from RAND evaluated the results of nine early childhood intervention programs, including the Abecedarian Project (Karoly et al., 1998). The RAND team determined that the nine early intervention programs evaluated in their study provided benefits for the participating disadvantaged children and their families. However, the Rand team pointed out that expanding model, resource-intensive programs like the Abecedarian Project to a larger scale may not necessarily result in the same developmental benefits. THE FEDERAL ROLE Background and Overview The Federal Government entered the child care business during the New Deal of the 1930s when federally funded nursery schools were established for poor children. The motivation for creating these nursery schools was not specifically to provide child care for working families. Rather, the schools were designed primarily to create jobs for unemployed teachers, nurses, and others, and also to provide a wholesome environment for children in poverty. However, when mothers began to enter the work force in large numbers during World War II, many of these nursery schools were continued and expanded. Federal funding for child care, and other community facilities, was available during the war years under the Lanham Act, which financed child care for an estimated 550,000-600,000 children before it was terminated in 1946. The end of the war brought the expectation that mothers would return home to care for their children. However, many women chose to remain at work and the labor force participation of women has increased steadily ever since. The appropriate Federal role in supporting child care, including the extent to which the Federal Government should establish standards for federally funded child care, has been an ongoing topic of debate. In 1988 and 1990, four Federal child care programs were enacted providing child care for families receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), families that formerly received AFDC, low-income working families at risk of becoming dependent on AFDC, and low-income working families generally. The establishment of these programs was the culmination of a lengthy, and often contentious debate, about what role the Federal Government should play in child care. Lasting nearly 4 years, the debate centered on questions about the type of Federal subsidies that should be made available and for whom, whether the Federal Government should set national child care standards, conditions under which religious child care providers could receive Federal funds, and how best to assure optimal choice for parents in selecting child care arrangements for their children, including options that would allow a mother to stay home. Differences stemming from philosophical and partisan views, as well as jurisdictional concerns, were reflected throughout the debate. Though the programs created in 1988 and 1990 represented a significant expansion of Federal support for child care, they joined a large number of existing Federal programs providing early childhood services, administered by numerous Federal agencies and overseen by several congressional committees. The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO; 1994) estimated that in fiscal year 1992 and fiscal year 1993, more than 90 early childhood programs were funded by the Federal Government, administered through 11 Federal agencies and 20 offices. Of these programs, GAO identified 34 as having education or child care as key to their mission. The Congressional Research Service (CRS), in a memo to the House Committee on Ways and Means (Forman, 1994), identified 46 Federal programs related to child care operating in fiscal year 1994, administered by 10 different Federal agencies. However, CRS noted that some of these programs were not primarily child care programs; rather, they were designed for some other major purpose but included some type of child care or related assistance. Moreover, a majority of the programs were small, with 32 of the 46 providing less than $50 million in annual funding. A more recent GAO (1998a) report identified 22 key child care programs, of which 5 accounted for more than 80 percent of total child care spending in fiscal year 1997. In 1996, the 104th Congress passed a major restructuring of Federal welfare programs, including a consolidation of major Federal child care programs into an expanded Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) (Public Law 104-103). The child care provisions in the new law were developed to achieve several purposes. As a component of welfare reform, the child care provisions are intended to support the overall goal of promoting self-sufficiency through work. However, separate from the context of welfare reform, the legislation attempts to address concerns about the effectiveness and efficiency of child care programs. The four separate child care programs that were enacted in 1988 and 1990 had different rules regarding eligibility, time limits on the receipt of assistance, and work requirements. Consistent with other block grant proposals considered in the 104th Congress, the child care provisions in Public Law 104-193 are intended to streamline the Federal role, reduce the number of Federal programs and conflicting rules, and increase the flexibility provided to States. Under the new amendments, the CCDBG is now the primary child care subsidy program operated by the Federal Government, and replaces previous child care programs for welfare and working families (i.e., child care for recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Transitional Child Care Assistance, and the At-Risk Child Care Program). The new law makes available to States almost $20 billion over a 6-year period (1997-2002) in a combination of entitlement and discretionary funding for child care, which is approximately $4 billion above the level that would have been available under the previous programs. Despite this increase in Federal resources, concerns persist about the adequacy and quality of child care in the era of welfare reform. Although welfare caseloads have declined, freeing up potential funds from the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant for use for child care, the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) estimates that in an average month in 1998 only 15 percent of children eligible for Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF) subsidies received them, raising questions of whether total child care funding is adequate (CCDF or otherwise). It should be noted, however, that eligibility figures do not necessarily reflect consumer demand for child care, leaving the issue of whether adequate child care funding exists open to debate. Nonetheless, child care spending has unarguably been increasing every year. In 1998, States drew down all available Federal mandatory CCDF funding and transferred $652 million in Federal TANF dollars in that year to CCDF Programs. If, as many suspect, demand for child care increases alongside dropping welfare rolls and heightened work requirements for welfare recipients, proposals for additional child care funding are likely to be made in the years ahead. Increased demand and Federal resources for child care could cause growth in the supply of child care providers. In May 1997, the U.S. General Accounting Office reported that gaps existed between the demand for child care and the ``known'' supply (i.e., providers that are regulated by or otherwise known to the States), based on research at four sites. These gaps were larger in poor areas and for certain types of care, such as infant and school-aged care. However, since many parents rely on informal care givers, such as relatives and neighbors, who may not be known to State agencies, linking supply and demand for child care can be difficult. A later GAO study reviewed efforts in seven States to expand child care programs (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1998b). The seven States did not know whether their efforts to expand the supply of providers would be sufficient to meet the increased demand expected to result from welfare reform. States' efforts included new provider recruitment; fiscal incentives for providers and businesses to establish or expand child care facilities; and initiatives to increase the use of early childhood development and education programs, such as Head Start and prekindergarten programs. Major Day Care Programs One of the largest Federal sources of child care assistance is provided indirectly through the Tax Code, in the form of a nonrefundable tax credit for taxpayers who work or are seeking work. Other major sources of Federal child care assistance include the CCDBG, the Social Services Block Grant under title XX of the Social Security Act, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant, and the Child Care Food Program, which subsidizes meals for children in child care. Head Start, the early childhood development program targeted to poor preschool children, can also be characterized as a child care program. Although Head Start primarily operates on a part-day, part-year basis, programs increasingly are being linked to other all-day child care providers to better meet the needs of full-time working parents. Assuming that about $1.9 billion will be spent from TANF either directly or by transfer to the CCDBG Block Grant, assuming that 13 percent of the title XX block grant is spent on child care, and counting the tax loss from the dependent care credit as spending, we can estimate that the Federal Government will spend over $15 billion on child care and Head Start in 2000. Child Care and Development Block Grant The Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) was originally authorized as an amendment to the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, and in 1996 was reauthorized (through 2002) and amended by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (Public Law 104-193). The program provides funding for child care services for low-income families, as well as for activities intended to improve the overall quality and supply of child care for families in general. Financing Under the original CCDBG Act, discretionary funds were authorized, subject to the annual appropriations process. As amended by the 1996 welfare reform law, the program is funded by a combination of discretionary and entitlement amounts. The combined total of funds is sometimes referred to as the Child Care and Development Fund. The discretionary funds are authorized at $1 billion annually. However, appropriations surpassed the authorized level in both fiscal years 1999 and 2000, at $1.183 billion. These funds are allocated among States according to the same formula contained in the original CCDBG Act, which is based on each State's share of children under age 5, the State's share of children receiving free or reduced-price lunches, and State per capita income. Half of 1 percent of appropriated funds is reserved for the territories, and between 1 and 2 percent is reserved for payments to Indian tribes and tribal organizations. States are not required to match these discretionary funds. Funds must be obligated in the year they are received or in the subsequent fiscal year, and the law authorizes the Secretary to reallocate unused funds. The welfare reform law also provided entitlement funding to States for child care under the CCDBG. The annual amounts of entitlement funding were $1.967 billion in fiscal year 1997; $2.067 billion in fiscal year 1998; $2.167 billion in fiscal year 1999; $2.367 billion in fiscal year 2000; $2.567 billion in fiscal year 2001; and $2.717 billion in fiscal year 2002. The Secretary must reserve between 1 and 2 percent of entitlement funds for payments to Indian tribes and tribal organizations. After this amount is reserved, remaining entitlement funds are allocated to States in two components. First, each State receives a fixed amount each year, equal to the funding received by the State under the three child care programs previously authorized under AFDC in fiscal year 1994 or fiscal year 1995, or the average of fiscal years 1992-94, whichever is greater. This amount, totals approximately $1.2 billion each year, is sometimes referred to as ``mandatory'' funds. No State match is required for these funds, which may remain available for expenditure by States with no fiscal year limitation. Although no State match is required, to receive their full TANF allotment, States must maintain at least 80 percent of their previous welfare expenditures (referred to as their ``maintenance-of-effort'' requirements), including previous expenditures for welfare-related child care, in fiscal year 1994. After the guaranteed amount is distributed, remaining entitlement funds are distributed to States according to each State's share of children under age 13. States must meet maintenance-of-effort and matching requirements to receive these funds. Specifically, States must spend all of their ``guaranteed'' Federal entitlement funds for child care, plus 100 percent of the amount they spent of their own funds in fiscal year 1994 or fiscal year 1995, whichever is higher, under the previous AFDC-related child care programs. Further, States must provide matching funds at the fiscal year 1995 Medicaid matching rate to receive these additional entitlement funds for child care. If the Secretary determines that a State will not spend its entire allotment for a given fiscal year, then the unused amounts may be redistributed among other States according to those States' share of children under age 13. In addition to amounts provided to States for child care, States may transfer up to 30 percent of their TANF Block Grant into their CCDBG or Social Services Block Grant Programs. Funds transferred into child care must be spent according to the CCDBG rules. However, States also may use TANF funds for child care without formally transferring them to the CCDBG. Eligibility and target population groups Children eligible for services under the revised CCDBG are those whose family income does not exceed 85 percent of the State median. States may adopt income eligibility limits below those in Federal law. Because child care funding is not an entitlement for individuals, States are not required to aid families even if their incomes fall below the State-determined eligibility threshold. Federal law does require States to give priority to families defined in their plans as ``very low income.'' To be eligible for CCDBG funds, children must be less than 13 years old and be living with parents who are working or enrolled in school or training, or be in need of protective services. States must use at least 70 percent of their total entitlement funds for child care services for families that are trying to become independent of TANF through work activities and families that are at risk of becoming dependent on public assistance. In their State plans, States must explain how they will meet the specific child care needs of these families. Of remaining child care funds (including discretionary amounts), States must ensure that a substantial portion is used for child care services to eligible families other than welfare recipients or families at risk of welfare dependency. Use of funds CCDBG funds may be used for child care services provided on a sliding fee scale basis; however, Federal regulations allow States to waive child care fees for families with incomes at or below the poverty line. Funds also may be used for activities to improve the quality or availability of child care. States are required to spend no less than 4 percent of their child care allotments (discretionary and entitlement) for activities to provide comprehensive consumer education to parents and the public, activities that increase parental choice, and activities designed to improve the quality and availability of child care (such as resource and referral services). Child care providers receiving Federal assistance must meet all licensing or regulatory requirements applicable under State or local law. States must have in effect licensing requirements applicable to child care; however, Federal law does not dictate what these licensing requirements should be or what types of providers they should cover. States must establish minimum health and safety standards that cover prevention and control of infectious diseases (including immunizations); building and physical premises safety; and health and safety training; and that apply to child care providers receiving block grant assistance (except relative providers). Parents of children eligible to receive subsidized child care must be given maximum choice in selecting a child care provider. Parents must be offered the option to enroll their child with a provider that has a grant or contract with the State to provide such services, or parents may receive a certificate (also sometimes referred to as a voucher) that can be used to purchase child care from a provider of the parents' choice. Child care certificates can be used only to pay for child care services from eligible providers, which can include sectarian child care providers. Eligible providers also can include individuals, age 18 or older, who provide child care for their grandchildren, great grandchildren, nieces or nephews, or siblings (if the provider lives in a separate residence). In fiscal year 1998 certificates were overwhelmingly the form of payment most used, serving over 83 percent of CCDF children nationally. States must establish payment rates for child care services that are sufficient to ensure equal access for eligible children to comparable services provided to children whose parents are not eligible for subsidies. The CCDBG contains specific requirements with regard to the use of funds for religious activities. Under the program, a provider that receives operating assistance through a direct grant or contract with a government agency may not use these funds for any sectarian purpose or activity, including religious worship and instruction. However, a sectarian provider that receives a child care certificate from an eligible parent is not so restricted in the use of funds. Administration and data collection At the Federal level, the CCDBG is administered by the Administration for Children and Families of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). The Secretary is required to coordinate all child care activities within the agency and with similar activities in other Federal agencies. States are required to designate a lead agency to administer the CCDBG, and may use no more than 5 percent of their Federal child care allotment for administrative costs. States must submit disaggregated data on children and families receiving subsidized child care to DHHS every quarter, and aggregate data twice a year. The Secretary is required to submit a report to Congress once every 2 years. The most recent available data from DHHS as submitted by the States is from fiscal year 1998. REFERENCES Adams, G., ; Schulman, K. (1998). Child care challenges. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund. Burchinal, M.R., Campbell, F.A., Bryant, D.M., Wasik, B.H., ; Ramey, C.T. (1997). Early intervention and mediating processes in cognitive performance of children of low-income African-American families. Child Development, 68, 935-54. Campbell, F.A. (1999, April 16). Long-term outcomes from the Abecedarian study. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, NM. Campbell, F.A., ; Ramey, C.T. (1995). Cognitive and school outcomes for high-risk African-American students at middle adolescence: Positive effects of early intervention. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 743-72.Capizzano, J., ; Adams, G. (2000a). The hours that children under five spend in child care: Variation across States (No. B-8). Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Capizzano, J.,; Adams, G. (2000b). The number of child care arrangements used by children under five: Variation across States (No. B-12). Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Capizzano, J., Adams, G., ; Sonenstein, F. (2000). Child care arrangements for children under five: Variation across States (No. B-7). Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Casper, L.M., Hawkins, M., ; O'Connell, M. (1994). Who's minding the kids? Current Population Reports (Series P70-36). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Casper, L., ; O'Connell, M. (1998). State estimates of organized child care facilities (Population Division Working Paper No. 21). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Center for the Child Care Workforce. (1999, March). Current data on child care salaries and benefits in the United States. Washington, DC: Author.Children's Foundation. (1999). The 1999 family child care licensing study. Washington, DC: Author. Children's Foundation. (2000). 2000 Child care center licensing study. Washington, DC: Author. Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team. (1995). Cost, quality, and child outcomes in child care centers, Public Report. Denver: Economics Department, University of Colorado-Denver. Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team. (1999). The children of the cost, quality, and outcomes study go to school--executive summary. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center. Forman, M.R. (1994, October 20). Federal funding for child care (Memorandum to the House Committee on Ways and Means). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Galinsky, E., Howes, C., Kontos, S., ; Shirr, M. (1994). The study of children in family child care and relative care. New York, NY: Families and Work Institute. Karoly, L.A., Greenwood, P.W., Everingham, S.S., Hoube, J., Kilburn, M.R., Rydell, C.P., Sanders, M., ; Chiesa, J. (1998). Investing in our children: What we know and don't know about the costs and benefits of early childhood interventions. Washington, DC: RAND. Kisker, E.E., Hofferth, S.L., Phillips, D.A., ; Farquhar, E. (1991). A profile of child care settings: Early education and care in 1990. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (1999, July). Child outcomes: When child care center classes meet recommended standards of quality. American Journal of Public Health, 89(7), 1072-77. Polivka, A.E., ; Rothgeb, J.M. (1993). Redesigning the CPS questionnaire. Monthly Labor Review, 116(9), 10-28. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1994). Early childhood programs: Multiple programs and overlapping target groups (HEHS-95-4FS). Washington, DC: Author. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1997). Welfare reform: Implications of increased work participation for child care (HEHS-97-75). Washington, DC: Author. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1998a). Child care: Federal funding for fiscal year 1997 (HEHS-98-70R). Washington, DC: Author. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1998b). Welfare reform: States' efforts to expand child care programs (HEHS-98-27). Washington, DC: Author. Whitebook, M., Howes, C., ; Phillips, D. (1998). Worthy work, unlivable wages: The national child care staffing study, 1988-97. Washington, DC: Center for the Child Care Workforce.
3 answers
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1. AA
2. AE
3. AG
4. AH
5. AI
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9. AY
10. EH
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18. IS
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20. NA
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25. SI
26. UH
27. UN
28. US
29. YA
30. YE
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32. AAS
33. AGA
34. AGE
35. AHA
36. AIN
37. AIR
38. AIS
39. ANA
40. ANE
41. ANI
42. ANY
43. ARE
44. ARK
45. ARS
46. ASH
47. ASK
48. AUK
49. AYE
50. AYS
51. EAR
52. EAU
53. ENG
54. ENS
55. ERA
56. ERG
57. ERN
58. ERS
59. GAE
60. GAN
61. GAR
62. GAS
63. GAY
64. GEN
65. GEY
66. GHI
67. GIE
68. GIN
69. GNU
70. GUN
71. GUY
72. HAE
73. HAG
74. HAH
75. HAS
76. HAY
77. HEH
78. HEN
79. HER
80. HES
81. HEY
82. HIE
83. HIN
84. HIS
85. HUE
86. HUG
87. HUH
88. HUN
89. INK
90. INN
91. INS
92. IRE
93. IRK
94. KAE
95. KAS
96. KAY
97. KEA
98. KEG
99. KEN
100. KEY
101. KHI
102. KIN
103. KIR
104. KUE
105. NAE
106. NAG
107. NAH
108. NAN
109. NAY
110. NUN
111. NUS
112. RAG
113. RAH
114. RAN
115. RAS
116. RAY
117. REG
118. REI
119. RES
120. RIA
121. RIG
122. RIN
123. RUE
124. RUG
125. RUN
126. RYA
127. RYE
128. SAE
129. SAG
130. SAU
131. SAY
132. SEA
133. SEG
134. SEI
135. SEN
136. SER
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140. SHY
141. SIN
142. SIR
143. SKA
144. SKI
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146. SRI
147. SUE
148. SUN
149. SYN
150. UGH
151. UKE
152. UNS
153. URN
154. USE
155. YAH
156. YAK
157. YAR
158. YAY
159. YEA
160. YEH
161. YEN
162. YES
163. YIN
164. YUK
165. AAHS
166. AERY
167. AGAR
168. AGAS
169. AGER
170. AGES
171. AGHA
172. AGIN
173. AGUE
174. AINS
175. AIRN
176. AIRS
177. AIRY
178. AKIN
179. ANAS
180. ANES
181. ANGA
182. ANIS
183. ANKH
184. ANNA
185. ANSA
186. ANUS
187. ARAK
188. AREA
189. ARES
190. ARIA
191. ARKS
192. ARSE
193. ASEA
194. ASHY
195. AUKS
196. AURA
197. AYAH
198. AYES
199. AYIN
200. EARN
201. EARS
202. EASY
203. EGIS
204. ENGS
205. ERAS
206. ERGS
207. ERNS
208. EYAS
209. EYRA
210. EYRY
211. GAEN
212. GAES
213. GAIN
214. GANE
215. GARS
216. GASH
217. GAUN
218. GAUR
219. GAYS
220. GEAR
221. GENS
222. GENU
223. GHIS
224. GIEN
225. GIES
226. GINK
227. GINS
228. GIRN
229. GNAR
230. GNUS
231. GRAN
232. GRAY
233. GREY
234. GRIN
235. GRUE
236. GUAN
237. GUAR
238. GUNK
239. GUNS
240. GUSH
241. GUYS
242. GYRE
243. GYRI
244. HAAR
245. HAEN
246. HAES
247. HAGS
248. HAHA
249. HAHS
250. HAIK
251. HAIR
252. HAKE
253. HANG
254. HANK
255. HARE
256. HARK
257. HASH
258. HAYS
259. HEAR
260. HEHS
261. HEIR
262. HENS
263. HERN
264. HERS
265. HIES
266. HIGH
267. HIKE
268. HINS
269. HIRE
270. HISN
271. HUES
272. HUGE
273. HUGS
274. HUNG
275. HUNH
276. HUNK
277. HUNS
278. HUSH
279. HUSK
280. INKS
281. INKY
282. INNS
283. IRES
284. IRKS
285. KAAS
286. KAES
287. KAGU
288. KAIN
289. KANA
290. KANE
291. KARN
292. KAYS
293. KEAS
294. KEGS
295. KEIR
296. KENS
297. KERN
298. KEYS
299. KHAN
300. KHIS
301. KIER
302. KINA
303. KINE
304. KING
305. KINS
306. KIRN
307. KIRS
308. KNAR
309. KNUR
310. KRIS
311. KUES
312. KYAR
313. NAAN
314. NAGS
315. NANA
316. NANS
317. NARK
318. NARY
319. NAYS
320. NEAR
321. NEUK
322. NIGH
323. NINE
324. NUKE
325. NUNS
326. RAGA
327. RAGE
328. RAGI
329. RAGS
330. RAIA
331. RAIN
332. RAKE
333. RAKI
334. RANG
335. RANI
336. RANK
337. RASE
338. RASH
339. RAYA
340. RAYS
341. REGS
342. REIN
343. REIS
344. RESH
345. RHEA
346. RHUS
347. RIAS
348. RIGS
349. RING
350. RINK
351. RINS
352. RISE
353. RISK
354. RUES
355. RUGA
356. RUGS
357. RUIN
358. RUNE
359. RUNG
360. RUNS
361. RUSE
362. RUSH
363. RUSK
364. RYAS
365. RYES
366. RYKE
367. SAGA
368. SAGE
369. SAGY
370. SAIN
371. SAKE
372. SAKI
373. SANE
374. SANG
375. SANK
376. SARI
377. SARK
378. SEAR
379. SERA
380. SHAG
381. SHAH
382. SHAY
383. SHEA
384. SHIN
385. SHRI
386. SHUN
387. SIGH
388. SIGN
389. SIKE
390. SINE
391. SING
392. SINH
393. SINK
394. SIRE
395. SKAG
396. SKEG
397. SKIN
398. SKUA
399. SNAG
400. SNUG
401. SNYE
402. SUER
403. SUGH
404. SUNG
405. SUNK
406. SUNN
407. SURA
408. SURE
409. SYKE
410. SYNE
411. UGHS
412. UKES
413. UNAI
414. UREA
415. URGE
416. URNS
417. URSA
418. USER
419. YAGI
420. YAKS
421. YANG
422. YANK
423. YARE
424. YARN
425. YAYS
426. YEAH
427. YEAN
428. YEAR
429. YEAS
430. YENS
431. YERK
432. YEUK
433. YINS
434. YUAN
435. YUGA
436. YUKS
437. AARGH
438. AEGIS
439. AGAIN
440. AGARS
441. AGERS
442. AGHAS
443. AGRIA
444. AGUES
445. AIRNS
446. ANEAR
447. ANGAS
448. ANGER
449. ANGRY
450. ANISE
451. ANKHS
452. ANKUS
453. ANNAS
454. ANSAE
455. ARAKS
456. AREAS
457. ARENA
458. ARGUE
459. ARGUS
460. ARIAS
461. ARISE
462. ASHEN
463. ASKER
464. AUGER
465. AURAE
466. AURAS
467. AUREI
468. AURES
469. AURIS
470. AYAHS
471. AYINS
472. EARNS
473. EKING
474. ENNUI
475. ENSKY
476. ESKAR
477. EYING
478. EYRAS
479. GAINS
480. GARNI
481. GAURS
482. GAYER
483. GEARS
484. GENUA
485. GENUS
486. GERAH
487. GINKS
488. GINNY
489. GIRNS
490. GIRSH
491. GNARS
492. GNASH
493. GRAIN
494. GRANA
495. GRANS
496. GRAYS
497. GREYS
498. GRINS
499. GRUES
500. GUANS
501. GUARS
502. GUISE
503. GUNKS
504. GUNKY
505. GUNNY
506. GURSH
507. GUSHY
508. GYRES
509. GYRUS
510. HAARS
511. HAHAS
512. HAIKA
513. HAIKS
514. HAIKU
515. HAIRS
516. HAIRY
517. HAKES
518. HANGS
519. HANKS
520. HANKY
521. HANSA
522. HANSE
523. HARES
524. HARKS
525. HARSH
526. HAUGH
527. HAYER
528. HEARS
529. HEIGH
530. HEIRS
531. HENNA
532. HENRY
533. HERNS
534. HEUGH
535. HIGHS
536. HIKER
537. HIKES
538. HINGE
539. HINNY
540. HIRES
541. HUGER
542. HUNKS
543. HUNKY
544. HUSKY
545. HYENA
546. HYING
547. INANE
548. INKER
549. INNER
550. INURE
551. INURN
552. KAGUS
553. KAINS
554. KANAS
555. KANES
556. KARNS
557. KASHA
558. KAURI
559. KAURY
560. KEIRS
561. KERNS
562. KHANS
563. KIANG
564. KIERS
565. KINAS
566. KINES
567. KINGS
568. KIRNS
569. KNARS
570. KNAUR
571. KNISH
572. KNURS
573. KYARS
574. KYRIE
575. NAANS
576. NAIRA
577. NANAS
578. NARES
579. NARIS
580. NARKS
581. NARKY
582. NEARS
583. NEGUS
584. NEIGH
585. NEUKS
586. NIGHS
587. NINES
588. NUKES
589. NURSE
590. RAGAS
591. RAGES
592. RAGIS
593. RAIAS
594. RAINS
595. RAINY
596. RAISE
597. RAKES
598. RAKIS
599. RANGE
600. RANGY
601. RANIS
602. RANKS
603. RAYAH
604. RAYAS
605. REGNA
606. REIGN
607. REINK
608. REINS
609. RENIG
610. RENIN
611. RESAY
612. RESIN
613. RHEAS
614. RINGS
615. RINKS
616. RINSE
617. RISEN
618. RISKY
619. RUANA
620. RUGAE
621. RUING
622. RUINS
623. RUNES
624. RUNGS
625. RUNNY
626. RUSHY
627. RYKES
628. SAGER
629. SAIGA
630. SAKER
631. SANER
632. SANGA
633. SANGH
634. SARAN
635. SARGE
636. SARIN
637. SARKY
638. SAUGH
639. SAUNA
640. SAURY
641. SAYER
642. SEGNI
643. SENGI
644. SENNA
645. SERAI
646. SERIN
647. SHAKE
648. SHAKY
649. SHANK
650. SHARE
651. SHARK
652. SHARN
653. SHEAR
654. SHEIK
655. SHIER
656. SHINE
657. SHINY
658. SHIRE
659. SHIRK
660. SHRUG
661. SHYER
662. SIEUR
663. SIKER
664. SINGE
665. SIREN
666. SKEAN
667. SKEIN
668. SKIER
669. SKIEY
670. SKYEY
671. SNAKE
672. SNAKY
673. SNARE
674. SNARK
675. SNEAK
676. SUGAR
677. SUING
678. SUNNA
679. SUNNY
680. SURAH
681. SURGE
682. SURGY
683. SYREN
684. UKASE
685. UNAIS
686. UNARY
687. UNRIG
688. UNSAY
689. URAEI
690. URASE
691. UREAS
692. URGES
693. URINE
694. URSAE
695. USAGE
696. USHER
697. USING
698. USNEA
699. YAGER
700. YAGIS
701. YANGS
702. YANKS
703. YARNS
704. YEANS
705. YEARN
706. YEARS
707. YERKS
708. YEUKS
709. YEUKY
710. YIKES
711. YUANS
712. YUGAS
713. AAHING
714. AGRIAS
715. AGUISH
716. ANANKE
717. ANEARS
718. ANERGY
719. ANGARY
720. ANGERS
721. ANGINA
722. ANKUSH
723. ANURAN
724. ANURIA
725. ARENAS
726. ARGUES
727. ARISEN
728. ARSHIN
729. ARSINE
730. ASHIER
731. ASHING
732. ASKING
733. AUGERS
734. EARING
735. EASING
736. ENNUIS
737. ENSIGN
738. GAINER
739. GARISH
740. GASHER
741. GASKIN
742. GEISHA
743. GENIUS
744. GERAHS
745. GINNER
746. GRAINS
747. GRAINY
748. GRANNY
749. GREASY
750. GUANAY
751. GUANIN
752. GUINEA
753. GUNNER
754. GURNEY
755. GUSHER
756. GYRASE
757. HAEING
758. HANGAR
759. HANGER
760. HANKER
761. HANKIE
762. HARING
763. HARKEN
764. HAUGHS
765. HAUSEN
766. HAYERS
767. HAYING
768. HEGARI
769. HEGIRA
770. HENNAS
771. HENRYS
772. HERNIA
773. HEUGHS
774. HIGHER
775. HIKERS
776. HINGER
777. HINGES
778. HUNGER
779. HUNGRY
780. HUNKER
781. HUSKER
782. HYAENA
783. HYENAS
784. IGUANA
785. INANER
786. INANES
787. INKERS
788. INNERS
789. INRUSH
790. INSANE
791. INSURE
792. INURES
793. INURNS
794. KAHUNA
795. KAISER
796. KASHER
797. KAURIS
798. KEYING
799. KIANGS
800. KIAUGH
801. KINASE
802. KNAURS
803. KURGAN
804. KYRIES
805. NARINE
806. NAUSEA
807. NEIGHS
808. NIGHER
809. NUKING
810. RAKING
811. RAKISH
812. RANGES
813. RASING
814. RAYAHS
815. RAYING
816. REAGIN
817. REGAIN
818. REGINA
819. REGIUS
820. REHANG
821. REHASH
822. REHUNG
823. REIGNS
824. REINKS
825. RENIGS
826. RENINS
827. RESIGN
828. RESINY
829. RUANAS
830. RUSINE
831. RYKING
832. SAGIER
833. SANGAR
834. SANGER
835. SANING
836. SAUGER
837. SAUGHY
838. SAYING
839. SENARY
840. SENRYU
841. SERING
842. SHAIRN
843. SHAKEN
844. SHAKER
845. SHANNY
846. SHARNY
847. SHAUGH
848. SHEIKH
849. SHEUGH
850. SHIKAR
851. SHINER
852. SHINNY
853. SHRANK
854. SHRIEK
855. SHRIKE
856. SHRINE
857. SHRINK
858. SHRUNK
859. SHYING
860. SIENNA
861. SIGHER
862. SIGNER
863. SINGER
864. SINKER
865. SINNER
866. SKEIGH
867. SKINNY
868. SKYING
869. SNAKEY
870. SNARKY
871. SNEAKY
872. SUGARY
873. SUNKEN
874. SUNNAH
875. SYNURA
876. UNAKIN
877. UNEASY
878. UNHAIR
879. UNHANG
880. UNRIGS
881. URANIA
882. URINES
883. URSINE
884. YAGERS
885. YEARNS
886. AGINNER
887. ANANKES
888. ANERGIA
889. ANEURIN
890. ANGINAS
891. ANGUINE
892. ANGUISH
893. ANHINGA
894. ANURANS
895. ANURIAS
896. EARINGS
897. EARNING
898. ENGRAIN
899. ENSUING
900. ENURING
901. ERASING
902. GAINERS
903. GAINSAY
904. GARNISH
905. GHERKIN
906. GINNERS
907. GRANNIE
908. GRAYISH
909. GREYISH
910. GRUSHIE
911. GUANASE
912. GUANAYS
913. GUANINE
914. GUANINS
915. GUARANI
916. GUINEAS
917. GUNNERS
918. GUNNERY
919. GUNNIES
920. GURNEYS
921. GUSHIER
922. HANGARS
923. HANGERS
924. HANKERS
925. HANKIES
926. HANKING
927. HARKENS
928. HARKING
929. HARSHEN
930. HASHING
931. HAYINGS
932. HEARING
933. HEARSAY
934. HEGARIS
935. HEGIRAS
936. HERNIAS
937. HINGERS
938. HUNGERS
939. HUNKERS
940. HUNKIER
941. HUNKIES
942. HUNNISH
943. HUSHING
944. HUSKIER
945. HUSKING
946. HYAENAS
947. IGUANAS
948. INSANER
949. INSNARE
950. KAHUNAS
951. KAURIES
952. KERNING
953. KIAUGHS
954. KURGANS
955. KYANISE
956. NARKING
957. NEARING
958. NURSING
959. RANKING
960. RANKISH
961. REAGINS
962. REGAINS
963. REGINAS
964. REHANGS
965. REUSING
966. RUSHING
967. SANGRIA
968. SAURIAN
969. SEARING
970. SERINGA
971. SHAKIER
972. SHAKING
973. SHARING
974. SHINNEY
975. SHRIEKY
976. SHUNNER
977. SINKAGE
978. SKINNER
979. SKREIGH
980. SNAKIER
981. SNAKING
982. SNARING
983. SUNNIER
984. SYNERGY
985. SYNURAE
986. SYRINGA
987. SYRINGE
988. UNHAIRS
989. UNHANGS
990. UNHINGE
991. UNRISEN
992. URANIAS
993. YANKING
994. YARNING
995. YEANING
996. YERKING
997. YEUKING
998. AGINNERS
999. ANEARING
1000. ANERGIAS
1001. ANEURINS
1002. ANGARIES
1003. ANHINGAS
1004. ARGINASE
1005. EARNINGS
1006. ENGRAINS
1007. ENSKYING
1008. ENSURING
1009. GHERKINS
1010. GRANNIES
1011. GUANINES
1012. GUARANIS
1013. HARANGUE
1014. HEARINGS
1015. HEARSING
1016. NAYSAYER
1017. RANKINGS
1018. RESAYING
1019. SANGUINE
1020. SHANGHAI
1021. SHANKING
1022. SHARKING
1023. SHEARING
1024. SHINNERY
1025. SHRUNKEN
1026. SNEAKING
1027. SYNERGIA
1028. UNHINGES
1029. UNSAYING
1030. UNSHAKEN
1031. USHERING
1032. YEARNING
1033. GAINSAYER
1034. GUARANIES
1035. HANKERING
1036. HARANGUES
1037. HARKENING
1038. HUNKERING
1039. KASHERING
1040. REHASHING
1041. SHRINKAGE
1042. YEARNINGS
1043. HARSHENING
1044. SANGUINARY
1045. SHANGHAIER
1 answer
2-letter words
he
3-letter words
heh, hem, hen, hep, her, hes, het, hew, hex, hey, she, the
4-letter words
ache, ahem, chef, chew, chez, eche, ghee, head, heal, heap, hear, heat, heck, heed, heel, heft, hehs, heil, heir, held, hell, helm, help, heme, hemp, hems, hens, hent, herb, herd, here, herl, herm, hern, hero, hers, hest, heth, hets, hewn, hews, khet, ohed, phew, rhea, shea, shed, shes, shew, thee, them, then, thew, they, whee, when, whet, whew, whey
5-letter words
aahed, ached, aches, ahead, ashed, ashen, ashes, bathe, bohea, cache, cheap, cheat, check, cheek, cheep, cheer, chefs, chela, chert, chess, chest, cheth, chevy, chews, chewy, eched, eches, ether, fiche, ghees, gighe, heads, heady, heals, heaps, heard, hears, heart, heath, heats, heave, heavy, hecks, heder, hedge, hedgy, heeds, heels, heeze, hefts, hefty, heigh, heils, heirs, heist, helio, helix, hello, hells, helms, helot, helps, helve, hemal, hemes, hemic, hemin, hemps, hempy, hence, henna, henry, hents, herbs, herby, herds, heres, herls, herma, herms, herns, heron, heros, herry, hertz, hests, heths, heuch, heugh, hewed, hewer, hexad, hexed, hexer, hexes, hexyl, ither, kheda, kheth, khets, kithe, kythe, lathe, lethe, lithe, mache, miche, mohel, niche, ocher, oohed, other, ouphe, raphe, rathe, rehem, rheas, rheum, ruche, sadhe, sheaf, sheal, shear, sheas, sheds, sheen, sheep, sheer, sheet, sheik, shelf, shell, shend, shent, sheol, sherd, shewn, shews, tache, thebe, theca, theft, thegn, thein, their, theme, thens, there, therm, these, theta, thews, thewy, tithe, tophe, tythe, usher, wheal, wheat, wheel, wheen, wheep, whelk, whelm, whelp, whens, where, whets, whews, wheys, withe
6-letter words
achene, adhere, aether, althea, anthem, anther, apache, arched, archer, arches, bached, baches, bashed, basher, bashes, bathed, bather, bathes, behead, beheld, behest, bethel, blithe, boheas, boshes, bother, broche, bushed, bushel, busher, bushes, cached, caches, cachet, cashed, cashes, cashew, cheapo, cheaps, cheats, chebec, checks, cheder, cheeks, cheeky, cheeps, cheero, cheers, cheery, cheese, cheesy, chegoe, chelae, chelas, chemic, cheque, cherry, cherts, cherty, cherub, chests, chesty, chetah, cheths, chevre, chewed, chewer, cipher, cither, cliche, cloche, clothe, cohead, coheir, cohere, coshed, cosher, coshes, creche, cypher, dashed, dasher, dashes, dished, dishes, dither, douche, either, ephebe, ephebi, eschew, etched, etcher, etches, ethene, ethers, fashed, fashes, father, fiches, fished, fisher, fishes, fleche, gashed, gasher, gashes, gather, gauche, gherao, ghetto, gopher, gorhen, gushed, gusher, gushes, hashed, hashes, headed, header, healed, healer, health, heaped, hearer, hearse, hearth, hearts, hearty, heated, heater, heaths, heathy, heaume, heaved, heaven, heaver, heaves, heckle, hectic, hector, heddle, heders, hedged, hedger, hedges, heeded, heeder, heehaw, heeled, heeler, heezed, heezes, hefted, hefter, hegari, hegira, heifer, height, heiled, heinie, heired, heishi, heists, hejira, heliac, helios, helium, helled, heller, hellos, helmed, helmet, helots, helped, helper, helved, helves, hemins, hemmed, hemmer, hemoid, hempen, hempie, henbit, hennas, henrys, hented, hepcat, heptad, herald, herbal, herbed, herded, herder, herdic, hereat, hereby, herein, hereof, hereon, heresy, hereto, heriot, hermae, hermai, hermit, hernia, heroes, heroic, heroin, herons, herpes, hetero, hetman, heuchs, heughs, hewers, hewing, hexade, hexads, hexane, hexers, hexing, hexone, hexose, hexyls, heyday, heydey, higher, hither, hushed, hushes, hyphen, imphee, inched, inches, inhere, isohel, itched, itches, joshed, josher, joshes, kasher, khedah, khedas, kheths, kithed, kithes, kosher, kuchen, kythed, kythes, laches, lashed, lasher, lashes, lathed, lather, lathes, leched, lecher, leches, lethes, lichee, lichen, liches, lither, loathe, louche, lushed, lusher, lushes, lychee, maches, maihem, manche, mashed, masher, mashes, mayhem, meshed, meshes, miched, miches, mither, mohels, mother, muches, mushed, musher, mushes, naches, nephew, nether, niched, niches, nighed, nigher, noshed, nosher, noshes, nother, ochers, ochery, orache, others, ouched, ouches, ouphes, pashed, pashes, peahen, peched, phenix, phenol, phenom, phenyl, pished, pishes, pithed, poohed, posher, pother, psyche, pushed, pusher, pushes, quiche, rachet, raphes, rasher, rashes, rather, rechew, rehear, reheat, reheel, rehems, reshes, rhaphe, rhebok, rhesus, rhetor, rheums, rheumy, richen, richer, riches, rochet, rotche, rouche, ruched, ruches, rushed, rushee, rusher, rushes, sachem, sachet, sadhes, saithe, sashed, sashes, scathe, schema, scheme, scythe, seethe, seiche, sheafs, sheals, shears, sheath, sheave, sheens, sheeny, sheers, sheets, sheeve, sheikh, sheiks, sheila, shekel, shells, shelly, shelta, shelty, shelve, shelvy, shends, sheols, sherds, sherif, sherpa, sherry, sheuch, sheugh, shewed, shewer, sighed, sigher, snathe, soothe, spahee, spathe, sphene, sphere, sphery, sughed, swathe, swithe, sypher, taches, takahe, teched, teethe, tether, thecae, thecal, thefts, thegns, theine, theins, theirs, theism, theist, themed, themes, thenal, thenar, thence, theory, theres, therme, therms, theses, thesis, thetas, thetic, tithed, tither, tithes, tocher, tophes, toshes, tother, touche, towhee, troche, tusche, tushed, tushes, tythed, tythes, unhelm, unhewn, unshed, upheap, upheld, ushers, washed, washer, washes, wether, wheals, wheats, wheels, wheens, wheeps, wheeze, wheezy, whelks, whelky, whelms, whelps, whenas, whence, wheres, wherry, wherve, wheyey, wiches, wished, wisher, wishes, withed, wither, withes, writhe, wyches, zither
7-letter words
abashed, abashes, abhenry, achenes, adhered, adherer, adheres, aethers, affiche, airhead, airshed, airthed, aitches, alchemy, allheal, altheas, another, anthems, anthers, apaches, aphelia, apheses, aphesis, aphetic, apothem, archers, archery, astheny, atheism, atheist, attache, babiche, banshee, bashers, batched, batcher, batches, bathers, beached, beaches, beechen, beeches, beheads, behests, belched, belcher, belches, benched, bencher, benches, berthed, bethels, bheesty, bighead, bioherm, birched, birchen, birches, birthed, bitched, bitches, blather, blether, blither, blucher, blushed, blusher, blushes, bobeche, bohemia, botched, botcher, botches, bothers, bouchee, boughed, bowhead, braches, brachet, brasher, brashes, breathe, brioche, brothel, brother, brushed, brusher, brushes, bunched, bunches, burgher, burthen, bushels, bushers, butcher, butches, cachets, cachexy, caleche, caliche, capuche, caroche, cashews, catcher, catches, cathead, cathect, cepheid, ceviche, cheapen, cheaper, cheapie, cheaply, cheapos, cheated, cheater, chebecs, checked, checker, checkup, cheddar, cheders, chedite, cheeked, cheeped, cheeper, cheered, cheerer, cheerio, cheerly, cheeros, cheesed, cheeses, cheetah, chefdom, cheffed, chegoes, chelate, cheloid, chemics, chemise, chemism, chemist, chequer, cheques, cherish, cheroot, cherubs, chervil, chesses, chested, chetahs, chetrum, chevied, chevies, cheviot, chevres, chevron, chewers, chewier, chewing, chewink, cinched, cinches, ciphers, cithern, cithers, clashed, clasher, clashes, cliched, cliches, cloches, clothed, clothes, coached, coacher, coaches, coheads, coheirs, cohered, coherer, coheres, conches, cooches, coshers, couched, coucher, couches, coughed, cougher, couther, cowherb, cowherd, cowshed, crashed, crasher, crashes, creches, crochet, crushed, crusher, crushes, cuishes, culches, curches, cutches, cyphers, dasheen, dashers, deashed, deashes, diether, dishelm, ditched, ditcher, ditches, dithers, dithery, douched, douches, duchess, dunches, earache, earthed, earthen, echelon, egghead, enwheel, ephebes, ephebic, epheboi, ephebos, ephebus, ephedra, epithet, escheat, eschews, esthete, etchers, ethenes, etheric, faithed, farther, fathead, fathers, feather, fetched, fetcher, fetches, filched, filcher, filches, finches, fishers, fishery, fisheye, fitchee, fitches, fitchet, fitchew, flashed, flasher, flashes, fleches, fleshed, flesher, fleshes, flushed, flusher, flushes, freshed, freshen, fresher, freshes, freshet, frothed, further, galoshe, gashest, gathers, gaucher, gherkin, ghettos, girshes, girthed, gnashed, gnashes, godhead, goloshe, gophers, gorhens, gouache, graphed, greyhen, gulches, gurshes, gushers, harshen, harsher, hatched, hatchel, hatcher, hatches, hatchet, headers, headier, headily, heading, headman, headmen, headpin, headset, headway, healers, healing, healths, healthy, heaping, hearers, hearing, hearken, hearsay, hearsed, hearses, hearted, hearten, hearths, heaters, heathen, heather, heating, heaumes, heavens, heavers, heavier, heavies, heavily, heaving, hebetic, heckled, heckler, heckles, hectare, hectors, heddles, hedgers, hedgier, hedging, hedonic, heeders, heedful, heeding, heehaws, heelers, heeling, heeltap, heezing, hefters, heftier, heftily, hefting, hegaris, hegiras, hegumen, heifers, heighth, heights, heiling, heimish, heinies, heinous, heirdom, heiress, heiring, heisted, heister, hejiras, hektare, heliast, helical, helices, helicon, helipad, heliums, helixes, hellbox, hellcat, helleri, hellers, hellery, helling, hellion, hellish, helloed, helloes, helluva, helmets, helming, helotry, helpers, helpful, helping, helving, hemagog, hematal, hematic, hematin, hemiola, hemline, hemlock, hemmers, hemming, hempier, henbane, henbits, hencoop, henlike, hennaed, hennery, henpeck, henries, henting, heparin, hepatic, hepcats, heptads, heptane, heptose, heralds, herbage, herbals, herbier, herders, herdics, herding, herdman, herdmen, heredes, heretic, heriots, heritor, hermits, herniae, hernial, hernias, heroics, heroine, heroins, heroism, heroize, heronry, herried, herries, herring, herself, hertzes, hessian, hessite, hetaera, hetaira, heteros, hetmans, hewable, hexades, hexadic, hexagon, hexanes, hexapla, hexapod, hexerei, hexones, hexosan, hexoses, heydays, heydeys, highest, hitched, hitcher, hitches, hooches, hophead, hotched, hotches, hothead, humphed, hunched, hunches, hutched, hutches, hyphens, imphees, inhered, inheres, inherit, isohels, joshers, jughead, kashers, kenches, ketches, khedahs, khedive, kimchee, kitchen, knishes, koshers, larches, lashers, latched, latches, latchet, lathers, lathery, laughed, laugher, leached, leacher, leaches, leashed, leashes, leather, lechers, lechery, leeched, leeches, letched, letches, lethean, lichees, lichens, lithely, lithest, loaches, loathed, loather, loathes, lunched, luncher, lunches, lurched, lurcher, lurches, lushest, luthern, lychees, lynched, lyncher, lynches, machete, maihems, manches, manchet, marched, marchen, marcher, marches, marshes, mashers, matched, matcher, matches, mayhems, mishear, mithers, mohelim, mooched, moocher, mooches, moorhen, mothers, mothery, mouched, mouches, mouthed, mouther, mulched, mulches, munched, muncher, munches, murther, mushers, mutches, mynheer, narthex, neighed, neither, nephews, nighest, nonheme, nonhero, norther, noshers, notched, notcher, notches, nowhere, nudzhed, nudzhes, nymphet, ochered, ootheca, oraches, outhear, oxheart, panache, panoche, panther, parched, parches, patched, patcher, patches, peached, peacher, peaches, peahens, penoche, penuche, perched, percher, perches, phellem, phenate, phenols, phenoms, phenoxy, phenyls, pinched, pincher, pinches, pinhead, pitched, pitcher, pitches, pithead, planche, plashed, plasher, plashes, plusher, plushes, poached, poacher, poaches, pooched, pooches, porches, poshest, pothead, potheen, potherb, pothers, potiche, pouched, pouches, preheat, prithee, prophet, prythee, pschent, psyched, psyches, punched, puncher, punches, pushers, quashed, quasher, quashes, quiches, qurshes, rachets, ralphed, ranched, rancher, ranches, rashers, rashest, ratches, ratchet, reached, reacher, reaches, recheat, recheck, rechews, redhead, reheard, rehears, reheats, reheels, retched, retches, rhaphes, rheboks, rhenium, rhetors, rheumic, richens, richest, roached, roaches, rochets, rotches, rouches, roughed, roughen, rougher, rushees, rushers, sachems, sachets, saphead, saphena, satchel, scathed, scathes, schemas, schemed, schemer, schemes, scherzi, scherzo, scythed, scythes, seethed, seethes, seiches, seviche, sheafed, sheared, shearer, sheathe, sheaths, sheaved, sheaves, shebang, shebean, shebeen, shedded, shedder, sheened, sheered, sheerer, sheerly, sheeted, sheeter, sheeves, sheikhs, sheilas, sheitan, shekels, shellac, shelled, sheller, sheltas, shelter, sheltie, shelved, shelver, shelves, sherbet, shereef, sheriff, sherifs, sheroot, sherpas, sherris, sheuchs, sheughs, shewers, shewing, shushed, shushes, sighers, sithens, slashed, slasher, slashes, slather, slither, sloshed, sloshes, slushed, slushes, smashed, smasher, smashes, smother, snashes, snathes, soothed, soother, soothes, soroche, soughed, southed, souther, spahees, spathed, spathes, sphenes, sphenic, spheral, sphered, spheres, spheric, staithe, stashed, stashes, sthenia, sthenic, strophe, subhead, swashed, swasher, swashes, swathed, swather, swathes, swished, swisher, swishes, swither, synched, syphers, takahes, teacher, teaches, teethed, teether, teethes, telpher, tenches, tetched, tethers, theater, theatre, thecate, theelin, theelol, thegnly, theines, theisms, theists, theming, thenage, thenars, theolog, theorbo, theorem, therapy, thereat, thereby, therein, thereof, thereon, thereto, theriac, thermae, thermal, thermel, thermes, thermic, thermos, theroid, theurgy, thewier, thighed, thither, tithers, tochers, toothed, torched, torches, touched, toucher, touches, toughed, toughen, tougher, towhead, towhees, trachea, tranche, trashed, trashes, trochee, troches, trothed, tusches, unheard, unhelms, unshell, upheaps, upheave, ushered, vetches, vouched, vouchee, voucher, vouches, warhead, washers, watched, watcher, watches, weather, weighed, weigher, welched, welcher, welches, welshed, welsher, welshes, wenched, wencher, wenches, wethers, wheaten, wheedle, wheeled, wheeler, wheelie, wheeped, wheeple, wheezed, wheezer, wheezes, whelmed, whelped, whereas, whereat, whereby, wherein, whereof, whereon, whereto, wherves, whether, whetted, whetter, wheyish, whished, whishes, whither, winched, wincher, winches, wishers, witched, witches, withers, woodhen, wooshed, wooshes, worthed, wrathed, wreathe, writhed, writhen, writher, writhes, youthen, zilches, zithern, zithers
8-letter words
abhenrys, absinthe, acalephe, achenial, acidhead, adherend, adherent, adherers, adhering, adhesion, adhesive, aesthete, aetheric, affiches, aircheck, airheads, airsheds, alcahest, alchemic, alkahest, allheals, ambushed, ambusher, ambushes, anathema, ankushes, anthelia, anthelix, anthemed, anthemia, antheral, antherid, antheses, anthesis, antihero, anywhere, aphelian, aphelion, apothece, apothegm, apothems, aspheric, asthenia, asthenic, atheisms, atheists, atheling, atheneum, atheroma, athetoid, attached, attacher, attaches, avouched, avoucher, avouches, aweather, babiches, bachelor, backache, baldhead, banished, banisher, banishes, banshees, barathea, barehead, barghest, barouche, batchers, bathetic, beclothe, bedsheet, beheaded, behemoth, belchers, benchers, berdache, besoothe, bethesda, bheestie, bigheads, billhead, bioherms, biphenyl, bitchery, blanched, blancher, blanches, blathers, bleached, bleacher, bleaches, blenched, blencher, blenches, blethers, blithely, blithers, blithest, blotched, blotches, bluchers, bluehead, blushers, bobeches, bohemian, bohemias, bolthead, bonehead, borsches, botchers, botchery, bothered, bouchees, bowheads, brachets, branched, branches, brashest, breached, breacher, breaches, breathed, breather, breathes, breeched, breeches, brioches, britches, broached, broacher, broaches, brooches, brothels, brothers, brunched, brunches, brushers, buckshee, bulkhead, bullhead, burghers, burthens, busheled, busheler, butchers, butchery, caboched, caboshed, cachepot, cacheted, cachexia, cachexic, calashes, caleches, caliches, camphene, capuched, capuches, caroches, catchers, catheads, cathects, cathedra, catheter, cathexes, cathexis, cepheids, ceviches, cheapens, cheapest, cheapies, cheapish, cheaters, cheating, chechako, checkers, checking, checkoff, checkout, checkrow, checkups, cheddars, cheddite, chedites, cheekful, cheekier, cheekily, cheeking, cheepers, cheeping, cheerers, cheerful, cheerier, cheerily, cheering, cheerios, cheerled, cheesier, cheesily, cheesing, cheetahs, chefdoms, cheffing, chelated, chelates, chelator, cheloids, chemical, chemises, chemisms, chemists, chemurgy, chenille, chenopod, chequers, cheroots, cherries, chertier, cherubic, cherubim, chervils, chessman, chessmen, chestful, chestier, chestnut, chetrums, chevalet, cheveron, cheviots, chevrons, chevying, chewable, chewiest, chewinks, chinches, choushes, churched, churches, ciphered, citherns, clashers, clenched, clencher, clenches, clerihew, clinched, clincher, clinches, clutched, clutches, coachers, coalshed, cogwheel, coheaded, coherent, coherers, cohering, cohesion, cohesive, cohoshes, coinhere, comether, corniche, coryphee, coshered, couchers, coughers, couthest, cowherbs, cowherds, cowsheds, cranched, cranches, crashers, cratches, creeshed, creeshes, crochets, crotched, crotches, crotchet, crouched, crouches, crunched, cruncher, crunches, crushers, crutched, crutches, cultches, cutchery, cyphered, dakerhen, dasheens, deadhead, debouche, decipher, demarche, detached, detacher, detaches, diarrhea, diethers, dihedral, dihedron, diphenyl, dishelms, disherit, dishevel, ditchers, ditheism, ditheist, dithered, ditherer, drenched, drencher, drenches, drophead, drumhead, druthers, dumbhead, dustheap, earaches, echelons, eggheads, eggshell, encashed, encashes, encipher, enmeshed, enmeshes, enriched, enricher, enriches, ensheath, ensphere, enswathe, enthetic, enwheels, ephedras, ephedrin, ephemera, epithets, erythema, escheats, eschewal, eschewed, estheses, esthesia, esthesis, esthetes, esthetic, ethephon, ethereal, etherify, etherish, etherize, euphenic, exanthem, famished, famishes, farouche, farthest, fatheads, fathered, fatherly, feathers, feathery, feldsher, fetchers, fetiches, fetishes, filchers, finished, finisher, finishes, fisheyes, fitchets, fitchews, flashers, flathead, fleeched, fleeches, flenched, flenches, fleshers, fletched, fletcher, fletches, flinched, flincher, flinches, flitched, flitches, flushers, flushest, flysches, flywheel, forehead, fourchee, frenched, frenches, freshens, freshest, freshets, furthers, furthest, galoshed, galoshes, gamashes, gathered, gatherer, gauchely, gauchest, gheraoed, gheraoes, gherkins, ghettoed, ghettoes, gilthead, glitches, glunched, glunches, goatherd, godheads, goloshes, gouaches, grapheme, greyhens, groschen, grouched, grouches, grutched, grutches, hardhead, harshens, harshest, hasheesh, hashhead, hatcheck, hatchels, hatchers, hatchery, hatchets, haunched, haunches, hazelhen, headache, headachy, headband, headfish, headgate, headgear, headhunt, headiest, headings, headlamp, headland, headless, headline, headlock, headlong, headmost, headnote, headpins, headrace, headrest, headroom, headsail, headsets, headship, headsman, headsmen, headstay, headways, headwind, headword, headwork, healable, hearable, hearings, hearkens, hearsays, hearsing, heartens, heartier, hearties, heartily, hearting, heatable, heatedly, heathens, heathers, heathery, heathier, heatless, heavenly, heaviest, heavyset, hebdomad, hebetate, hebetude, hebraize, hecatomb, hecklers, heckling, hectares, hectical, hecticly, hectored, hedgehog, hedgehop, hedgepig, hedgerow, hedgiest, hedonics, hedonism, hedonist, heedless, heehawed, heelball, heelings, heelless, heelpost, heeltaps, heftiest, hegemony, hegumene, hegumens, hegumeny, heighten, heighths, heirdoms, heirless, heirloom, heirship, heisters, heisting, hektares, heliacal, heliasts, helicity, helicoid, helicons, helicopt, helilift, helipads, heliport, helistop, hellbent, hellcats, hellfire, hellhole, hellions, hellkite, helloing, helmeted, helminth, helmless, helmsman, helmsmen, helotage, helotism, helpable, helpings, helpless, helpmate, helpmeet, hemagogs, hematein, hematics, hematine, hematins, hematite, hematoid, hematoma, hemiolas, hemiolia, hemipter, hemlines, hemlocks, hemocoel, hemocyte, hemolyze, hemostat, hempiest, hemplike, hempseed, hempweed, henbanes, henchman, henchmen, hencoops, henequen, henequin, henhouse, heniquen, hennaing, henpecks, heparins, hepatica, hepatics, hepatize, hepatoma, heptagon, heptanes, heptarch, heptoses, heralded, heraldic, heraldry, herbages, herbaria, herbiest, herbless, herblike, hercules, herdlike, herdsman, herdsmen, hereaway, heredity, hereinto, heresies, heretics, heretrix, hereunto, hereupon, herewith, heritage, heritors, heritrix, hermaean, hermetic, hermitic, hermitry, herniate, heroical, heroines, heroisms, heroized, heroizes, herpeses, herpetic, herrings, herrying, hesitant, hesitate, hessians, hessites, hetaerae, hetaeras, hetaeric, hetairai, hetairas, hexagons, hexagram, hexamine, hexaplar, hexaplas, hexapods, hexapody, hexarchy, hexereis, hexosans, hitchers, hitherto, hogshead, hoorahed, hootches, hopheads, hotheads, huarache, huisache, hurrahed, hushedly, huzzahed, hyphemia, hyphened, hypothec, immeshed, immeshes, inarched, inarches, ingather, inherent, inhering, inherits, inhesion, inmeshed, inmeshes, inrushes, insheath, insphere, inswathe, ischemia, ischemic, isocheim, isothere, isotherm, jacinthe, jagghery, jugheads, kashered, khedival, khedives, kiboshed, kiboshes, kimchees, kirsches, kitchens, kitsches, klatches, koshered, kvetched, kvetches, latchets, lathered, latherer, laughers, launched, launcher, launches, lavished, lavisher, lavishes, leachers, leathern, leathers, leathery, lechered, lengthen, lichened, lichenin, lithemia, lithemic, loathers, longhead, luncheon, lunchers, lunkhead, lurchers, lutherns, lynchers, machetes, manchets, marchers, marchesa, marchese, marchesi, marishes, masthead, mastiche, matchers, meathead, menarche, menschen, mensches, menthene, mijnheer, milkshed, minished, minishes, misheard, mishears, monished, monishes, moochers, moorhens, morpheme, mothered, motherly, mouthers, munchers, murthers, mustache, mynheers, nailhead, nautches, neatherd, nepenthe, northern, northers, notchers, nowheres, nutshell, nymphean, nymphets, ochering, ocherous, onrushes, oompahed, oosphere, oothecae, oothecal, ornithes, outcheat, outheard, outhears, overhead, overheap, overhear, overheat, overheld, oxhearts, painches, panaches, panoches, pantheon, panthers, parchesi, parhelia, parhelic, parishes, pastiche, patchers, pathetic, paunched, paunches, paycheck, peachers, penoches, penuches, perchers, perished, perishes, pheasant, phellems, phelonia, phenates, phenazin, phenetic, phenetol, phenixes, phenolic, phenylic, pincheck, pinchers, pinheads, pinscher, pinwheel, pistache, pitchers, pitheads, planches, planchet, plashers, pleached, pleaches, plenches, ploughed, plougher, plowhead, plushest, poachers, polished, polisher, polishes, postheat, postiche, potashes, potheads, potheens, potherbs, pothered, potiches, potlache, potsherd, preached, preacher, preaches, precheck, preheats, prochein, prophecy, prophesy, prophets, pschents, puncheon, punchers, punished, punisher, punishes, putsches, pyorrhea, quaiches, quashers, quenched, quencher, quenches, quitches, qurushes, radishes, railhead, rakehell, ranchero, ranchers, ratchets, ravished, ravisher, ravishes, reachers, recheats, rechecks, rechewed, reclothe, redheads, regather, rehashed, rehashes, rehearse, reheated, reheater, reheeled, rehemmed, relished, relishes, revanche, revehent, rewashed, rewashes, rhematic, rheniums, rheobase, rheology, rheophil, rheostat, rhesuses, rhetoric, rheumier, richened, ricochet, roughens, roughers, roughest, roughhew, ruthenic, sachemic, sacheted, sapheads, saphenae, satchels, scarphed, schedule, schemata, schemers, scheming, scherzos, scorched, scorcher, scorches, scotched, scotches, scouther, scutched, scutcher, scutches, searched, searcher, searches, seashell, selfheal, seviches, sheafing, shealing, shearers, shearing, sheathed, sheather, sheathes, sheaving, shebangs, shebeans, shebeens, shedable, shedders, shedding, sheenful, sheenier, sheenies, sheening, sheepcot, sheepdog, sheepish, sheepman, sheepmen, sheerest, sheering, sheeters, sheetfed, sheeting, sheikdom, sheitans, shelduck, shelfful, shellack, shellacs, shellers, shellier, shelling, shelters, shelties, shelvers, shelvier, shelving, shending, shepherd, sherbert, sherbets, shereefs, sheriffs, sherlock, sheroots, sherries, shetland, sithence, sketched, sketcher, sketches, skinhead, slashers, slatches, slathers, sleighed, sleigher, sleuthed, slithers, slithery, slouched, sloucher, slouches, sloughed, smashers, smirched, smirches, smithers, smithery, smooched, smooches, smoothed, smoothen, smoother, smothers, smothery, smutched, smutches, snatched, snatcher, snatches, sneeshes, snitched, snitcher, snitches, snowshed, softhead, somewhen, soothers, soothest, sorehead, soroches, soutache, southern, southers, speeches, sphenoid, spherics, spherier, sphering, spheroid, spherule, splashed, splasher, splashes, sploshed, sploshes, squashed, squasher, squashes, squished, squishes, squushed, squushes, staithes, stanched, stancher, stanches, starched, starches, stenches, sthenias, stitched, stitcher, stitches, strophes, subheads, subniche, subshell, subtheme, sunbathe, swanherd, swashers, swatches, swathers, swishers, switched, switcher, switches, swithers, swooshed, swooshes, syphered, teachers, teethers, telphers, tethered, thatched, thatcher, thatches, thearchy, theaters, theatres, theatric, thebaine, theelins, theelols, theistic, thelitis, thematic, thenages, theocrat, theodicy, theogony, theologs, theology, theonomy, theorbos, theorems, theories, theorise, theorist, theorize, therefor, theremin, theriaca, theriacs, thermals, thermels, thermion, thermite, theropod, thesauri, thespian, thetical, theurgic, thewiest, thewless, thiophen, thrashed, thrasher, thrashes, threshed, thresher, threshes, thrushes, tochered, together, toolhead, toolshed, torchere, touchers, toughens, toughest, towheads, tracheae, tracheal, tracheas, tracheid, tranches, trenched, trencher, trenches, trihedra, trochees, twitched, twitcher, twitches, unbathed, uncashed, unchewed, unclothe, unfished, unhealed, unheated, unhedged, unheeded, unhelmed, unhelped, unheroic, unkosher, unlashed, unlashes, unmeshed, unmeshes, unrushed, unshells, unsphere, unswathe, untether, unwashed, unwished, unwishes, upgather, upheaped, upheaval, upheaved, upheaver, upheaves, uprushed, uprushes, ushering, vanished, vanisher, vanishes, vehement, vouchees, vouchers, warheads, watchers, watcheye, weathers, weighers, welchers, wellhead, welshers, wenchers, wheatear, wheatens, wheedled, wheedler, wheedles, wheelers, wheelies, wheeling, wheelman, wheelmen, wheeping, wheepled, wheeples, wheezers, wheezier, wheezily, wheezing, whelkier, whelming, whelping, whenever, wherever, wherried, wherries, whetters, whetting, wheyface, whooshed, whooshes, winchers, witchery, withered, witherer, withheld, woodhens, woodshed, woolshed, wreathed, wreathen, wreathes, wrenched, wrenches, wretched, wretches, writhers, xanthein, xanthene, youthens, zitherns
9-letter words
abhenries, abolished, abolisher, abolishes, absinthes, acalephes, acidheads, adherence, adherends, adherents, adhesions, adhesives, aesthetes, aesthetic, airchecks, airheaded, alcahests, alchemies, alchemist, alchemize, alkahests, ambushers, anathemas, anguished, anguishes, anhedonia, anhedonic, anopheles, anthelion, antheming, anthemion, antherids, antitheft, anywheres, apartheid, apathetic, aphelions, aphereses, apheresis, apotheces, apothecia, apothegms, apprehend, archenemy, archeries, archetype, arrowhead, asthenias, asthenics, asthenies, atheistic, athelings, athenaeum, atheneums, atheromas, attachers, authentic, avalanche, avouchers, bachelors, backaches, baksheesh, baldheads, banishers, baratheas, barghests, barouches, batfishes, beachhead, beclothed, beclothes, bedsheets, beheading, behemoths, bellyache, berdaches, beseeched, beseeches, besoothed, besoothes, bethesdas, betrothed, bewitched, bewitches, bheesties, bigheaded, billheads, biosphere, biphenyls, blackhead, blanchers, blaspheme, blasphemy, blathered, blatherer, bleachers, blemished, blemishes, blenchers, blethered, blithered, blockhead, bloodshed, blueheads, bodycheck, bohemians, boltheads, bombshell, boneheads, bookshelf, bothering, boxfishes, breachers, breathers, broachers, brochette, brothered, brotherly, buckshees, buckwheat, bulkheads, bullheads, bulrushes, burnished, burnisher, burnishes, burthened, bushelers, busheling, bushelled, butchered, butcherly, cachectic, cachepots, cacheting, cachexias, cachexies, cacoethes, camphenes, capouches, caroaches, carroches, cartouche, cartwheel, carwashes, catfishes, cathected, cathectic, cathedrae, cathedral, cathedras, cathepsin, catheters, cheapened, cheapjack, cheapness, chechakos, checkable, checkbook, checkered, checkless, checklist, checkmark, checkmate, checkoffs, checkouts, checkrein, checkroom, checkrows, cheddites, cheechako, cheekbone, cheekfuls, cheekiest, cheeriest, cheerlead, cheerless, cheesiest, chelating, chelation, chelators, chelicera, chelipeds, chelonian, chemicals, chemisorb, chemistry, chenilles, chenopods, cheongsam, chequered, cherimoya, cherished, cherisher, cherishes, chernozem, chertiest, cherubims, chestfuls, chestiest, chestnuts, chevalets, chevalier, chevelure, cheverons, ciphering, clamshell, clenchers, clerihews, clinchers, clipsheet, coalsheds, codfishes, cogwheels, coheading, coheiress, coherence, coherency, cohesions, coinhered, coinheres, cokeheads, comethers, corniches, coryphees, coshering, cowfishes, craunched, craunches, crocheted, crocheter, crosshead, crotchets, crotchety, crunchers, cyphering, dakerhens, deadheads, debauched, debauchee, debaucher, debauches, debouched, debouches, decahedra, deciphers, demarches, dervishes, detachers, diarrheal, diarrheas, diarrheic, diathermy, diatheses, diathesis, diathetic, dihedrals, dihedrons, diphenyls, dishelmed, disherits, dishevels, ditheisms, ditheists, ditherers, dithering, dogfishes, dopeheads, dowitcher, drenchers, dropheads, drumheads, duchesses, dumbheads, dustheaps, echeloned, echeveria, ecosphere, ectotherm, eggheaded, eggshells, elsewhere, enciphers, endotherm, englished, englishes, enrichers, ensheathe, ensheaths, ensphered, enspheres, enswathed, enswathes, enwheeled, enwreathe, ephedrine, ephedrins, ephemerae, ephemeral, ephemeras, ephemerid, ephemeris, epithelia, epithetic, erythemas, escheated, eschewals, eschewing, esthesias, esthetics, ethephons, etherized, etherizer, etherizes, euphemise, euphemism, euphemist, euphemize, euphenics, euthenics, euthenist, eutherian, evanished, evanishes, exanthema, exanthems, exchequer, exosphere, eyelashes, eyewashes, fatheaded, fathering, feathered, feldshers, fellaheen, finfishes, finishers, fisheries, fisherman, fishermen, flatheads, flechette, flemished, flemishes, fletchers, flinchers, flywheels, foolisher, forecheck, foreheads, foresheet, forgather, foxfishes, freewheel, freshened, freshener, furbished, furbisher, furbishes, furnished, furnisher, furnishes, furthered, furtherer, galumphed, garfishes, garnished, garnishee, garnishes, gatherers, gathering, gaucherie, gearwheel, gheraoing, ghettoing, ghettoize, gigahertz, giltheads, goatherds, godfather, godmother, gonorrhea, goulashes, graphemes, graphemic, greenhead, guilloche, hagbushes, hagfishes, handhelds, handwheel, hardheads, harshened, harumphed, hashheads, hashishes, hatcheled, hazelhens, headaches, headbands, headboard, headdress, headfirst, headgates, headgears, headhunts, headiness, headlamps, headlands, headlight, headlined, headliner, headlines, headlocks, headnotes, headphone, headpiece, headraces, headrests, headrooms, headsails, headships, headspace, headstall, headstand, headstays, headstock, headstone, headwater, headwinds, headwords, headworks, healthful, healthier, healthily, hearkened, heartache, heartbeat, heartburn, heartened, heartfelt, heartiest, heartland, heartless, heartsick, heartsome, heartsore, heartwood, heartworm, heathiest, heathland, heathless, heathlike, heatproof, heaviness, hebdomads, hebetated, hebetates, hebetudes, hebraized, hebraizes, hecatombs, hectogram, hectoring, hedgehogs, hedgehops, hedgepigs, hedgerows, hedgingly, hedonisms, hedonists, heedfully, heehawing, heelballs, heelpiece, heelposts, heftiness, hegemonic, hegumenes, heightens, heinously, heiresses, heirlooms, heirships, helically, helicoids, helicopts, helilifts, heliostat, heliozoan, heliports, helistops, hellboxes, hellbroth, hellebore, hellenize, helleries, hellfires, hellholes, hellhound, hellishly, hellkites, helmeting, helminths, helotages, helotisms, helotries, helpfully, helpmates, helpmeets, hemateins, hematines, hematinic, hematites, hematitic, hematomas, hematuria, hemelytra, hemicycle, hemiolias, hemipters, hemistich, hemocoels, hemocytes, hemolymph, hemolyses, hemolysin, hemolysis, hemolytic, hemolyzed, hemolyzes, hemostats, hempseeds, hempweeds, hemstitch, hendiadys, henequens, henequins, henhouses, heniquens, henneries, henpecked, hepaticae, hepaticas, hepatitis, hepatized, hepatizes, hepatomas, heptagons, heptarchs, heptarchy, heralding, herbalist, herbarium, herbicide, herbivore, herbivory, herculean, hereabout, hereafter, hereaways, heretical, hereunder, heritable, heritages, hermetism, hermetist, hermitage, hermitism, herniated, herniates, heroinism, heroizing, heronries, hesitance, hesitancy, hesitated, hesitater, hesitates, hessonite, heterodox, heteronym, heteroses, heterosis, heterotic, heuristic, hexachord, hexagonal, hexagrams, hexahedra, hexameter, hexamines, hexaploid, hogfishes, hogsheads, hogwashes, hotheaded, huaraches, huisaches, hyphemias, hyphenate, hyphening, hypothecs, impeached, impeaches, inbreathe, inearthed, ingathers, inherence, inherited, inheritor, inhesions, insheaths, insphered, inspheres, inswathed, inswathes, inveighed, inveigher, ischemias, isocheims, isotheres, isotherms, jacinthes, jewfishes, juicehead, kashering, khedivial, kiddushes, kilohertz, klatsches, koshering, kurbashed, kurbashes, lampshell, larghetto, latherers, lathering, launchers, lavishers, lavishest, leathered, lecheries, lechering, lecherous, lengthens, lichening, lichenins, lichenous, lithemias, litheness, lithesome, logorrhea, longheads, lowlihead, luncheons, lunkheads, mainsheet, mastheads, mastiches, maybushes, meatheads, megahertz, menarches, menthenes, metheglin, mijnheers, milksheds, morphemes, morphemic, mothering, moustache, mudfishes, mujahedin, murthered, mustached, mustaches, nailheads, naphthene, narthexes, natheless, neatherds, nebbishes, nepenthes, nepheline, nephelite, nonghetto, nonheroes, nonkosher, nonsuches, nontheist, noosphere, northeast, northerly, northerns, nosewheel, nourished, nourisher, nourishes, nowhither, nutshells, nymphette, oarfishes, octahedra, oospheres, orchestra, ostriches, otherness, otherwise, outcheats, outfished, outfishes, outgushes, outpushed, outpushes, outrushed, outrushes, outscheme, outwashes, outwished, outwishes, overheads, overheaps, overheard, overhears, overheats, overwhelm, panfishes, pantheism, pantheist, pantheons, parchesis, parfleche, parhelion, pastiches, paychecks, perihelia, periphery, pheasants, phellogen, phelonion, phenacite, phenakite, phenazine, phenazins, phenetics, phenetols, phenocopy, phenolate, phenolics, phenology, phenomena, phenotype, phenoxide, phenytoin, pheromone, phosphene, pigfishes, pigheaded, pinchecks, pinfishes, pinheaded, pinschers, pinwheels, pistaches, planchets, planished, planisher, planishes, plenished, plenishes, ploughers, plowheads, polishers, polyhedra, polythene, poppyhead, postheats, postiches, pothering, potlaches, potsherds, preachers, prechecks, preheated, preheater, prewashed, prewashes, printhead, prophetic, protheses, prothesis, prothetic, published, publisher, publishes, puncheons, punishers, pupfishes, pyorrheas, quamashes, quenchers, railheads, rakehells, rakehelly, rancheros, ratcheted, ratfishes, ravishers, rechecked, recherche, rechewing, reclothed, reclothes, redfishes, redheaded, refreshed, refreshen, refresher, refreshes, regathers, rehearing, rehearsal, rehearsed, rehearser, rehearses, reheaters, reheating, reheeling, rehemming, rematched, rematches, repatched, repatches, reprehend, reteaches, retouched, retoucher, retouches, revanches, reweighed, rheobases, rheometer, rheostats, rhetorics, rheumatic, rheumatiz, rheumiest, richening, ricochets, roughened, roughhewn, roughhews, rubbishes, ruthenium, sapheaded, saphenous, sawfishes, scarehead, scheduled, scheduler, schedules, scheelite, schematic, scorchers, scouthers, scraiched, scraighed, scratched, scratcher, scratches, screeched, screecher, screeches, scrooched, scrooches, scrunched, scrunches, scutcheon, scutchers, searchers, seashells, seborrhea, selfheals, sepulcher, sheaflike, shealings, shearings, shearling, sheathers, sheathing, sheeniest, sheepcote, sheepcots, sheepdogs, sheepfold, sheepskin, sheerlegs, sheerness, sheetings, sheetlike, sheikdoms, sheikhdom, sheldrake, shelducks, shelffuls, shelflike, shellacks, shellback, shellfish, shelliest, shellwork, sheltered, shelterer, shelviest, shelvings, shepherds, sherberts, sherlocks, sherrises, shetlands, shewbread, sketchers, skinheads, skreeghed, skreighed, slathered, sleighers, slithered, slouchers, smoothens, smoothers, smoothest, smothered, snatchers, snitchers, snowsheds, softheads, softshell, somewhere, soreheads, soutaches, southeast, southerly, southerns, spaghetti, spearhead, sphenodon, sphenoids, spherical, spheriest, spheroids, spherules, spinaches, splashers, splotched, splotches, squashers, squelched, squelcher, squelches, squinched, squinches, squooshed, squooshes, stanchers, stanchest, staunched, stauncher, staunches, steelhead, stitchers, stitchery, stomached, stomacher, stonished, stonishes, stretched, stretcher, stretches, subniches, subshells, subthemes, sunbathed, sunbather, sunbathes, sunfishes, superheat, superhero, swanherds, swellhead, swineherd, switchers, swithered, syntheses, synthesis, synthetic, syphering, tallithes, tarbushes, tarnished, tarnishes, teacherly, telphered, tethering, thatchers, theatrics, thebaines, thecodont, thematics, theocracy, theocrats, theogonic, theologic, theologue, theophany, theoretic, theorised, theorises, theorists, theorized, theorizer, theorizes, theosophy, therapies, therapist, therapsid, therefore, therefrom, thereinto, theremins, thereunto, thereupon, therewith, theriacal, theriacas, thermally, thermions, thermites, thermoses, thermoset, theropods, thesaural, thesaurus, thespians, theurgies, theurgist, thickhead, thiophene, thiophens, thitherto, thrashers, threshers, tochering, toolheads, toolsheds, toothache, torcheres, toughened, towheaded, toxaphene, tracheary, tracheate, tracheids, tracheole, trailhead, treachery, trebuchet, trenchers, trihedral, trihedron, tritheism, tritheist, triumphed, truncheon, tundishes, twitchers, ultraheat, unabashed, unbrushed, unchecked, uncliched, unclothed, unclothes, unearthed, unhatched, unhealthy, unheeding, unhelming, unhelpful, unhitched, unhitches, unlatched, unlatches, unleashed, unleashes, unmatched, unreached, unscathed, unsheathe, unshelled, unsphered, unspheres, unswathed, unswathes, unteaches, untethers, untouched, unwasheds, unwreathe, upgathers, upheaping, upheavals, upheavers, upheaving, upreached, upreaches, usherette, vanishers, varnished, varnisher, varnishes, vehemence, vouchered, wampished, wampishes, washerman, washermen, watcheyes, watershed, weathered, weatherly, wellheads, wheatears, wheedlers, wheedling, wheelbase, wheelings, wheelless, wheelsman, wheelsmen, wheelwork, wheepling, wheeziest, whelkiest, whereases, wherefore, wherefrom, whereinto, whereunto, whereupon, wherewith, wherrying, whetstone, wheyfaces, whichever, whitehead, witherers, withering, witherite, woodsheds, woolsheds, wuthering, xantheins, xanthenes, youthened, zitherist, zucchetto
10-letter words
abolishers, accoucheur, adherences, adherently, adhesional, adhesively, admonished, admonisher, admonishes, aesthetics, airbrushed, airbrushes, aircoaches, alchemical, alchemists, alchemized, alchemizes, alkahestic, altogether, amenorrhea, anastrophe, anathemata, anesthesia, anesthetic, anhedonias, anopheline, anthelices, anthelions, anthelixes, antheridia, antiheroes, antiheroic, antiherpes, antitheses, antithesis, antithetic, apartheids, apophthegm, apostrophe, apothecary, apothecial, apothecium, apotheoses, apotheosis, apprehends, approached, approaches, archegonia, archeology, archerfish, archetypal, archetypes, arrowheads, aspherical, astonished, astonishes, athenaeums, atheromata, atmosphere, avalanched, avalanches, backlashed, backlasher, backlashes, backrushes, backwashed, backwashes, badmouthed, bakshished, bakshishes, bareheaded, barrelhead, beachheads, bedclothes, bedrenched, bedrenches, bellwether, bellyached, bellyacher, bellyaches, bequeathed, bescorched, bescorches, besmirched, besmirches, besmoothed, betrotheds, bewitchery, bighearted, bigmouthed, billfishes, biochemist, biographee, biographer, biospheres, biospheric, bitcheries, blackheads, blackheart, blandished, blandisher, blandishes, blasphemed, blasphemer, blasphemes, blatherers, blathering, blethering, blithering, blithesome, blockheads, bloodsheds, blowfishes, bluefishes, boarfishes, bodychecks, bolshevism, bolshevize, bombshells, bonefishes, boneheaded, botcheries, bothersome, brandished, brandishes, bridgehead, broadsheet, brochettes, brothering, bubblehead, buckwheats, bufflehead, bullheaded, bullrushes, burnishers, burthening, bushelling, butcheries, butchering, calabashes, calipashes, carragheen, carritches, cartouches, cartwheels, catecheses, catechesis, cathecting, cathedrals, cathepsins, cavefishes, chainwheel, cheapening, cheapishly, cheapjacks, cheapskate, checkbooks, checkering, checklists, checkmarks, checkmated, checkmates, checkpoint, checkreins, checkrooms, checkrowed, cheechakos, cheekbones, cheekiness, cheerfully, cheeriness, cheerleads, cheesecake, cheesiness, chelatable, chelations, chelicerae, cheliceral, chelonians, chemically, chemisette, chemisorbs, chemotaxes, chemotaxis, chemurgies, cheongsams, chequering, cherimoyas, cherishers, cherishing, chernozems, cherrylike, cherublike, chessboard, chevaliers, chevelures, ciphertext, clamshells, clipsheets, clomiphene, clothespin, coalfishes, coherences, coherently, cohesively, coinhering, comprehend, coolheaded, copperhead, cowcatcher, cowpuncher, crawfished, crawfishes, crayfishes, crocheters, crocheting, crossheads, cutcheries, deadheaded, dealfishes, debauchees, debauchers, debauchery, decahedron, deciphered, decipherer, demolished, demolisher, demolishes, depolished, depolishes, despatched, despatches, detachedly, diarrhetic, diathermic, diminished, diminishes, diphtheria, dishearten, dishelming, disherited, disheveled, dishwasher, disinherit, dispatched, dispatcher, dispatches, dogcatcher, dogwatches, dowitchers, downwashes, dragonhead, drumfishes, dunderhead, dysphemism, echeloning, echeverias, ecospheres, ectotherms, empathetic, enciphered, encipherer, encroached, encroacher, encroaches, endothecia, endothelia, endotherms, endothermy, enravished, enravishes, ensheathed, ensheathes, ensphering, entrenched, entrenches, enwheeling, enwreathed, enwreathes, epentheses, epenthesis, epenthetic, ephedrines, ephemerals, ephemerids, epigrapher, epistrophe, epithelial, epithelium, epithelize, escheating, escutcheon, esthesises, ethereally, etherified, etherifies, etherizers, etherizing, euhemerism, euhemerist, euphemised, euphemises, euphemisms, euphemists, euphemized, euphemizer, euphemizes, euthenists, eutherians, everywhere, exanthemas, exchequers, exospheres, exospheric, exothermal, exothermic, fallfishes, fatherhood, fatherland, fatherless, fatherlike, fatshedera, featherbed, featherier, feathering, fianchetto, fiddlehead, figurehead, filefishes, fisherfolk, flatfishes, 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1 answer
Child care is an issue of significant public interest for several reasons. The dramatic increase in the labor force participation of mothers is the most important factor affecting the demand for child care in the last quarter century. Currently, in a majority of American families with children--even those with very young children--the mother is in the paid labor force. Similarly, an increasingly significant trend affecting the demand for child care is the proportion of mothers who are the sole or primary financial supporters of their children, either because of divorce or because they never married. In addition, child care has been a significant issue in recent debates over how to move welfare recipients toward employment and self-sufficiency; mothers on welfare may have difficulty entering the labor force because of child care problems. Finally, the impact of child care on the children themselves is an issue of considerable interest, with ongoing discussion of whether low-income children benefit from participation in programs with an early childhood development focus. Concerns that child care may be in short supply, not of good enough quality, or too expensive for many families escalated during the late 1980s into a national debate over the nature and extent of the Nation's child care problems and what, if any, Federal interventions would be appropriate. The debate culminated in the enactment of legislation in 1990 that expanded Federal support for child care by establishing two new State child care grant programs. The programs--the Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) and the At-Risk Child Care Program--were enacted as part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-508). These programs were preceded by enactment of a major welfare reform initiative, the Family Support Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-485), which authorized expanded child care assistance for welfare families and families leaving welfare. In 1996, as part of welfare reform legislation (the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, Public Law 104-193), these programs were consolidated into an expanded Child Care and Development Block Grant (sometimes referred to as the Child Care and Development Fund), which provides increased Federal funding and serves both low-income working families and families attempting to transition off welfare through work. This chapter provides background information on the major indicators of the demand for and supply of child care, the role of standards and quality in child care, a summary description of the major Federal programs that fund child care services, and reported data from the largest of those sources of funding, the Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF). EMPLOYMENT AND MARITAL STATUS OF MOTHERS The dramatic increase in the labor force participation of mothers is commonly regarded as the most significant factor fueling the increased demand for child care services. A person is defined as participating in the labor force if she is working or seeking work. In 1947, just following World War II, slightly over one-fourth of all mothers with children between the ages of 6 and 17 were in the labor force. By contrast, in 1999 over three-quarters of such mothers were labor force participants. The increased labor force participation of mothers with younger children has also been dramatic. In 1947, it was unusual to find mothers with a preschool-age child in the labor force--only about 12 percent of mothers with children under the age of 6 were in the labor force. But in 1999, over 64 percent of mothers with preschool-age children were in the labor force, a rate more than 5 times higher than in 1947. Women with infant children have become increasingly engaged in the labor market as well. Today, 60 percent of all mothers whose youngest child is under age 2 are in the labor market, while in 1975 less than one-third of all such mothers were labor force participants. The rise in the number of female-headed families has also contributed to increased demand for child care services. Single mothers maintain a greater share of all families with children today than in the past. Census data show that in 1970, 11 percent of families with children were headed by a single mother, compared with 26 percent of families with children in 1998. While the number of two-parent families with children did not fluctuate much between 1970 and 1998 (25.8 and 25.7 million respectively), the number of female-headed families with children almost tripled, increasing from 3.4 million families in 1970 to 9.8 million in 1998. These families headed by mothers were a major source of growth in the demand for child care. Mothers' attachment to the labor force differs depending on the age of their youngest child and marital status. Among those with children under 18, divorced women have the highest labor force participation rate (84.0 percent), followed by separated women (77.3 percent). The labor force participation rate for never-married mothers with children under 18 grew to over 73 percent in 1999, a 21 percent increase over the 1996 rate. In 1996, never-married mothers trailed all other marital status groups (with children under 18) in labor force participation, but by 1999, the participation rate for never-married mothers surpassed married women (70 percent) and widowed mothers (63 percent). Labor force participation rates tend to increase regardless of the marital status of the mother as the age of the youngest child increases. Among all women with children under 18, 61 percent of those with a child under 3 participate, 70 percent of those whose youngest child is between 3 and 5 participate, and 79 percent of those whose youngest child is between 14 and 17 participate. While there has been a substantial increase in the proportion of mothers in the labor force, the data can be misleading without examining employment status. Although 72 percent of mothers participated in the labor force in 1999, 50 percent worked full time and 18 percent worked part time (less than 35 hours per week). Therefore, in 1999, about 30 percent of mothers were actively looking for work, but not employed. Forty-one percent of mothers with children under age 6 worked full time, and 19 percent worked part time. The 1996 welfare reform law's new emphasis on work is likely to have affected the employment status of the never-married mother subgroup most significantly. Overall, the percent of all mothers (with children under 18) employed full time grew from slightly over 47 percent in 1996 to just over 50 percent in 1999. Within the subgroup of never-married mothers, the 3 year period was accompanied by a larger increase in full-time employment. In 1996, about 35 percent of never-married mothers with children under 18 were employed full time. By 1999, the figure had increased to over 48 percent. The percent of never-married mothers working full time with children under age 6 had grown comparably, increasing from almost 29 percent in 1996 to over 41 percent in 1999. Within the divorced mothers subgroup, there were increases between the years, but the differences are not nearly as large as within the never-married subgroup. In 1999, the percent of all divorced mothers employed full time with children under 18 had reached almost 69 percent, a 2 percentage point increase since 1996. For those with children under 6, over 60 percent worked full time in 1999. The employment status of married mothers is shown to have changed little or not at all since 1996, depending on full- or part-time status, and age of children. CHILD CARE ARRANGEMENTS USED BY WORKING MOTHERS Data are collected periodically by the U.S. Census Bureau on the types of child care arrangements used by families with working mothers. The most recent U.S. Census Bureau statistics available on child care arrangements are based on data collected by the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) for the fall of 1995 (although the Census Bureau has not published a report with these data, the data are available on their Website at www.census.gov/DES/www/welcome.htm). Because the interview questions obtain information about both paid and unpaid substitute care used while the mother works, it provides information on categories of care that generally are not considered child care, such as care provided by the father, or care by a sibling. The 1995 data indicate that the types of child care arrangements used by families while the mother works vary depending on the age of the child, as well as the mother's work schedule (full- or part-time), marital status, and family income. In the 1995 SIPP survey, parents were asked to estimate the number of hours a child spends in any of several care arrangements during a week, rather than to identify the child's ``primary'' care arrangement while the mother worked. The primary child care arrangement is based on the arrangement in which a child spends the most hours in a typical week. In the case of a child who spends equal time between arrangements, the child would have more than one primary arrangement. Over 36 percent of families of preschoolers with working mothers in 1995 primarily relied on care in another home by a relative, family day care provider, or other nonrelative, compared to almost 26 percent of families whose primary arrangement was an organized child care facility. These data mark a change from the fall 1994 survey results, which revealed that over 30 percent of families used organized child care as their primary arrangement. However, some of the decline in the use of organized child care facilities and increase in care out of another's home may reflect a change in the 1995 survey, which more clearly defined care types, by asking specifically about family day care providers (providers caring for more than one child outside the child's home), as distinct from organized group day care. Relative care, either in the child's home or the relative's home, was used by 21 percent of families of preschool children with employed mothers. Over one-fifth of families with young children did not rely on others for help with child care arrangements while the mother worked, but instead used parental care (22 percent), especially care by fathers (almost 17 percent). Only 5 percent of families relied on care provided in the child's home by a nonrelative. Preschool children of part-time employed mothers were much more likely to be cared for by a parent (31 percent), than by an organized child care facility (21 percent), and also more likely to be cared for by a relative, family provider, or nonrelative in another home (29 percent). Mothers employed full time were more likely to use family day care providers (19 percent) and organized day care centers (20 percent) than any other form of care. Care by grandparents, either in or out of the child's home, was the next most utilized category for full-time (14 percent), and part-time employed mothers (18 percent). The types of afterschool arrangements used in 1995 for school-age children by working mothers, as well as cases in which there were no arrangements used at all. The 1995 survey asked more questions about arrangements than in earlier years (for instance, it specifically asked about care by a sibling), and this may account for some of the increase in the ``care in child's home'' category. In 1993, 11 percent of children age 5-14 were being cared for afterschool in the child's home, whereas in 1995 this figure had increased to almost 20 percent. Of those children age 5-14 with employed mothers in 1995, over 10 percent were cared for by a sibling (over 3 percent by a sibling under age 15). Afterschool care by fathers also increased substantially from 1993 to 1995. In 1993, just over 11 percent of children were primarily cared for by fathers during afterschool time, compared to 21 percent in 1995. A total of 2.5 million school-age children (11.6 percent of children age 5-14) were reported to be in self-care or to be unsupervised by an adult for some time while their mothers were working. It is not known if the children in the ``no care mentioned'' category were unsupervised, or if other factors may account for their not being reported in a child care arrangement, such as travel time from school. Regardless, the 1995 survey instrument appears to have been more effective in identifying types of child care arrangements, since only 1.6 percent of children reportedly fall in the ``no care mentioned'' category, a sharp decline from 46 percent in the 1993 survey. The 9.2 percent of poor children being cared for in the child's home by a relative or nonrelative in 1995 represents a marked decrease from over 18 percent reported in 1994. The percent of nonpoor children in this category remained unchanged at 14 percent. Nonpoor children in 1995 were more likely than poor children to be cared for in another home by either a relative, family day care provider, or other nonrelative. Poor families were more likely than nonpoor families to not mention any regular arrangement (10 percent versus 1 percent). The U.S. Census Bureau data discussed above reflect child care arrangements in the fall of 1995. More recently, data from the 1997 National Survey of America's Families (NSAF), collected by the Urban Institute, can be used to examine primary child care arrangements used by children under 5 with employed mothers nationally, and across 12 individual States. Nationwide, 41 percent of preschool children with employed mothers are in care for 35 or more hours per week (Capizzano ; Adams, 2000a). One-quarter are in care for 15-34 hours per week, 16 percent for 1-14 hours per week, and 18 percent spend no hours in nonparental child care. For preschool children with mothers employed full time, the number of children in full-time care (35 or more hours) increases to 52 percent. Children that are 3 and 4 years old are slightly more likely to be in full-time care than younger preschoolers (44 percent versus 39 percent). Children in high-income families are almost equally as likely to spend 35 or more hours a week in child care as low-income children (42 percent versus 40 percent), although high-income children are more likely than low-income children to be in part-time care (42 percent versus 37 percent). Twenty-three percent of low-income children are reported to spend no hours in nonparental care, compared to 16 percent of high-income children. According to the 1997 NSAF, 32 percent of preschool children use center-based child care as their primary arrangement, while about half that number (16 percent) are in family child care (Capizzano, Adams, ; Sonenstein, 2000). About 6 percent are primarily cared for in the child's home by a babysitter or nanny. Twenty-three percent of children under 5 are cared for primarily by a relative, either inside or outside the child's home, while almost a quarter (24 percent) of children are in the care of a parent. The analysis of individual States revealed that there is considerable State variation in the use of specific primary child care arrangements. The Urban Institute's analysis also examined how child care arrangements vary according to both age of child and family income. The survey data indicate that nationally, infants and toddlers are more likely to be cared for by relatives (27 percent) and parents (27 percent) than to be in center-based care (22 percent) or family child care (17 percent). As preschoolers grow older (age 3 and 4), use of relative and parent care decreases (17 and 18 percent respectively), and center-based care becomes the most commonly used primary arrangement (45 percent). Use of family child care remains relatively steady at 14 percent for 3- and 4-year-olds. At the national level, children under age 5 in families below 200 percent of poverty are less likely than high-income children to use center-based care as a primary arrangement (26 percent versus 35 percent). Relative care and parent care are used equally by low-income families (28 percent each), and more often than by high-income families, of which 20 percent use relative care and 21 percent parent care. Low- and high-income children are almost equally likely to use family child care as their primary arrangement (14 and 17 percent respectively). In addition to looking at the primary child care arrangements for children under 5, Urban Institute researchers used the 1997 NSAF to examine the number of arrangements used to care for a child, and the hours that are spent in each type of arrangement. Nationally, 38 percent of children under 5 combine more than one child care arrangement each week (Capizzano ; Adams, 2000b). Of those, 8 percent combine three or more arrangements. The remaining 62 percent have only one child care arrangement. Children under age 3 are less likely to have multiple child care arrangements than 3- and 4-year-olds (34 percent versus 44 percent). Children aged 3 and 4 are three times as likely to be in three or more care arrangements. Of the children in multiple arrangements, most use a combination of formal and informal care, regardless of age or income. Children from low- and high-income families are almost equally likely to be in multiple child care arrangements (37 and 40 percent respectively). As seen with primary arrangements, there is considerable State variation in the use of multiple arrangements. CHILD CARE COSTS Research studies have found that the majority of families with working mothers and preschool children purchase child care services. The tendency to purchase care and the amount spent on care, both in absolute terms and as a percent of family income, generally varies by the type of child care used, family type (married or single mothers), and the family's economic status. The most recent data on child care expenditures by families are from the Survey of Income and Program Participation for the fall of 1995. These data show that 64 percent of families with employed mothers paid for child care for their preschool-aged children. Nonpaid child care was most typically provided by relatives. Families with mothers employed full time were more likely to purchase care for their young children than those with mothers working part time. Among families with full-time working mothers, 73 percent paid for child care, compared to 50 percent of families with mothers employed part time. Likewise, families with higher incomes were more likely to purchase care than families with lower incomes, with the exception of families with monthly incomes between $1,200 and $3,000. For example, 71 percent of families with monthly incomes of $4,500 or more purchased child care in the fall of 1995, while only 60 percent of families with monthly incomes of less than $1,200 purchased care. Average weekly costs per family for all preschool-aged children were $83 in 1995 for those families that purchased care. Married-couple families devoted a smaller percentage of their income to child care (9 percent) than single-parent families (22 percent), but their child care expenditures were nonetheless greater ($87 per week) than those of single-parent families (about $70 per week). While poor families spend fewer dollars for child care than higher income families, they spend a much greater percentage of their family income for child care. Thus, poor families spent only $60 per week, but this amount represented 36 percent of their income. By contrast, nonpoor families spent $85 per week on care, but this amount was only 10 percent of their income. A December 1997 survey of the cost of child care for a 4-year-old in urban child care centers across the country, conducted by the Children's Defense Fund (Adams ; Schulman, 1998) found that in every State, the average child care tuition exceeds $3,000 per child, and is over $5,000 per child in 17 States. SUPPLY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD CARE PROVIDERS Supply of Providers The variety of child care arrangements used by families has been discussed above, however, the studies of arrangements do not include estimates of the number of available providers. A comprehensive study of licensed centers, early education programs, center-based programs exempt from State or local licensing (such as programs sponsored by religious organizations or schools), and licensed family day care providers has not been conducted since the U.S. Department of Education's Profile of Child Care Settings Study was released in 1991. That study reported that approximately 80,000 center-based early education and care programs were providing services in the United States at the beginning of 1990 (Kisker, Hofferth, Phillips, ; Farquhar, 1991). A less extensive, but more recent study, focusing only on regulated child care centers, was released by the Children's Foundation in January 2000. The study reported that the number of regulated child care centers in the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands totals 106,246 (Children's Foundation, 2000). This is a 3.5 percent increase from the Foundation's 1999 study's total, and nearly a 19 percent increase from the total published by the Children's Foundation's first study of centers in 1991. The 2000 study notes that the definition of regulated child care center varies by State or territory. In 28 States, the number of regulated child care centers includes nursery schools, preschools, prekindergartens and religiously affiliated centers. In the remaining States and territories, the definition is less inclusive. For example, some States exclude nursery schools or religiously affiliated centers in their count. The Children's Foundation also conducts studies on family child care providers (as opposed to centers). Their 1999 report indicates that there are 290,667 regulated family child care homes, of which 249,622 are family day care homes (caring for up to 6 children) and 41,045 large group child care homes (in which providers generally care for 7-12 children). It is assumed by child care researchers that the number of unregulated family day care providers far exceeds the number of regulated family providers, though it is difficult to determine by how much. At the time of the aforementioned Profile of Child Care Settings Study of 1991, the number of regulated family day care homes represented an estimated 10-18 percent of the total number of family day care providers. The U.S. Census Bureau also collects data on the number of child care businesses in the United States. For a historical look at child care businesses in the early 1990s, a 1998 report used Census of Service Industries (CSI) data to provide information on the number and characteristics of child care businesses in 1992 (Casper ; O'Connell, 1998). ``Child care businesses'' are defined as organized establishments engaged primarily in the care of infants or children, or providing prekindergarten education, where medical care or delinquency correction is not a major component. Not included in this definition are babysitting services or Head Start Programs that are coordinated with elementary schools. Based on the Census of Service Industries data, the number of incorporated child care centers doubled from 25,000 in 1977 to 51,000 in 1992. Wages of Child Care Center Staff No single data source provides comprehensive information on wages of child care workers. However, occupational data collected by the Department of Labor, when complemented by survey information gathered by organizations interested in child care issues, begin to paint a picture of the status of child care wages in the United States. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) collects wage data for 764 occupations, as surveyed by the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) Program. However, readers should be aware that the occupational categories create a misleading division in the child care work force. Center-based child care staff are described by the OES survey as either ``preschoolteacher'' or ``child care worker,'' distinguishing the former as an individual who instructs children up to age 5 in developmental activities within a day care center, child development facility, or preschool, and the latter as a person who performs tasks such as dressing, feeding, bathing, and overseeing play of children. This division of tasks does not necessarily occur in actual child care settings, and therefore the survey's occupational group assignments, and wage distinctions made between those groups, should be interpreted with some caution. Nevertheless, the OES survey provides a general sense of wages within the child care field. Based on BLS data and OES survey results from 1997, the median hourly wage of a center-based ``child care worker'' was $7.03, and a ``preschoolteacher,'' $9.09. Both these wages are considerably higher than the median hourly wage for family child providers, who, based on 1997 Current Population Survey data, earn an estimated median wage of $4.69 per hour [based on a 55-hour week, which the Center for Child Care Workforce (1999) reports is the typical work week for U.S. family child care providers]. The National Child Care Staffing Study (NCCSS), originally launched in 1988, and most recently updated in 1997, provides additional information on child care center staff (Whitebook, Howes, ; Phillips, 1998). Information on wages and characteristics of center staff was collected from 158 full-day, full-year, State licensed child care centers in five metropolitan areas around the country. In the study's findings on trends in hourly wages for center-based child care staff, over the 10 year period of the study, wages of child care center workers have remained relatively stagnant. Staff Turnover Like many low-wage industries, turnover among the child care work force has been historically high. The NCCSS has tracked worker turnover and stability beginning with its initial study in 1988. In 1988, center directors in the sample reported a 41 percent average rate of annual turnover of teaching staff. In 1992, they reported average annual turnover of 26 percent for the year prior to the survey interview. By 1997, the rate had risen to 31 percent for all teaching staff, and one-fifth of centers reported losing half or more of their teaching staff in the previous year. The 10 percentage point decrease in turnover rates between 1988 and 1997 should be analyzed with caution, however, as the sample size of the NCCSS study dropped from 227 to 158. According to the study directors, a disproportionate number of the centers reporting the highest turnover in 1988 had closed by the time of the 1997 survey, leaving a sample of centers with potentially lower than average turnover rates for their areas. The issue of stability among centers themselves is not specifically addressed in the NCCSS study, however its authors do mention increasing reports of centers closing due to an insufficient supply of trained teachers. Better job opportunities and higher wages in other fields, due to a strong economy, have been identified as recent major causes of turnover. Ninety-three percent of directors reported taking more than 2 weeks to find replacements for departing teaching staff and over one-third (37 percent) reported taking over a month to do so. The effect of staff turnover on children is one of several topics that continues to receive attention during ever-growing discussions of how to measure child care quality. Employing Welfare Recipients as Child Care Workers Passage of welfare reform legislation in 1996, and its emphasis on moving recipients into work, created expectations of an increase in demand for child care, and recipients themselves were identified by some as a potential new source of child care workers. The 1997 NCCSS therefore gathered information from child care directors regarding the employment of welfare recipients (recipients of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) as center staff. The study found that approximately one-third (35 percent) of the child care centers in the sample employ Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) recipients, that those centers employing TANF recipients are more likely to pay lower wages across all positions, and that those centers experience higher teaching staff turnover. While the median wage reported for TANF workers is $5.50 per hour (in 1997) compared to the $6 per hour for all entry-level teaching assistants, 60 percent of centers pay TANF workers the same as their lowest-paid assistants, 23 percent pay them more, and 18 percent pay them less. Almost half (48 percent) of the centers employing TANF recipients report providing on-site training for TANF employees, 18 percent use community-based training programs, and 16 percent of the programs offer college credit-bearing training. CHILD CARE STANDARDS AND QUALITY Regulation and Licensing Regulation and licensing of child care providers is conducted primarily at the State and local levels, although the extent to which the Federal Government should play a role in this area has been a topic of debate for many years (see below). Licensing and regulation serves as a means of defining and enforcing minimum requirements for the legal operation of child care environments in which children will be safe from harm. There is no uniform way in which States and/or territories regulate child care centers, preschools, nursery schools, prekindergartens, and/or religiously affiliated child care centers. All States and territories do, however, require these center-based types of care (as opposed to family child care providers) to be regulated through licensing or registration. In the case of family day care providers, most States exempt certain providers--typically those serving smaller numbers of children from licensing or regulation. As mentioned in the earlier discussion of child care supply, the Children's Foundation survey found that there were 290,667 regulated family child care providers in the States and territories in 1999. If estimates from the 1990 child care settings study are applied, this number may represent only 10-18 percent of family child care, with the remaining facilities being unregulated. The count of centers that are regulated (meaning licensed or certified) totals 106,246 according to the Children's Foundation 2000 study. Research on Child Care Quality As women's labor force participation has grown over the past several decades, concerns about child care quality have increased. Highly publicized research on early brain development in infants and young children (under age 3) has drawn attention to what role child care may play in children's cognitive and social development. The relationship between quality of child care and outcomes for children is of increasing interest to parents, researchers, and policymakers. A growing body of research examines questions such as how to define the elements that correspond to quality child care, how to measure those elements, and ultimately, their effects on children both in the short- and long-term. One comprehensive study of connections between child care and early childhood development is part of an ongoing project conducted by a team of researchers supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD, 1999), of the National Institutes of Health. The broad goal of the NICHD study, started in 1991, is to collect data on an ongoing basis from a sample of children and their families (located in 10 areas across the United States) to answer a range of questions about the relationship between child care characteristics and experiences, and children's developmental outcomes. The children and families in the study's sample vary in socioeconomic background, race, family structure, and type of child care used. The study design takes into account characteristics of the family and its environment to gain a more complete picture of the contribution that child care characteristics and experiences themselves make to children's development, above and beyond the contribution of the family environment. Even so, not all characteristics are observed, and the ability to completely disentangle all of the characteristics (both of the parents and the child) is difficult, if not impossible, in such a study. Children in the study are not randomly assigned to child care settings of varying degrees of quality, but are instead placed in settings of their parents' selection. The selection of care in and of itself may reflect contributing variables--characteristics of the parents, children, and environment--that are not fully observed in the study. Likewise, a child's developmental outcomes in a particular setting may reflect the child's characteristics as much as the setting's quality. Although the NICHD study attempts to distinguish among some of these factors, the ability to interpret the results is somewhat constrained by selection bias. The findings showed that in general, family characteristics and the quality of the mother's relationship with her child were stronger predictors of the child's development than were the characteristics of child care. The family characteristics such as income and mother's education were strong predictors of children's outcomes, for both children cared for solely by their mothers and children in extensive nonparental child care. The study did find a modest but consistent association between quality of nonparental child care over the first 3 years of life and children's cognitive and language development, regardless of family background. In this case, quality child care was defined as positive care giving and language stimulation; i.e., how often providers spoke to children, asked questions, and responded to children's questions. The NICHD researchers also analyzed the more structural elements of child care in centers--elements that are generally regulated by the States, but to varying degrees, such as child-staff ratio, group size, and teacher training and education. The researchers used recommended guidelines developed jointly by the American Public Health Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics to evaluate the degree to which standards were being met by centers used by families in the study. Twelve percent of the study's children were enrolled in child care centers at 6 months, and 38 percent at age 3. Findings indicate that the children in the centers that met some or all of the guidelines had better language comprehension and school readiness than the children who were in centers that did not meet the guidelines. There were also fewer behavioral problems for children age 2 and 3 in the centers that met the guidelines. The researchers have continued to follow the children in the sample, and will release findings from the assessment of the children at 54 months of age, and again in first grade. Like other studies that examine the relationship between child care and developmental outcomes, the NICHD research aims to determine not just whether there are concurrent and short-term effects of child care on children's development, but long-term effects as well. The study did not attempt to measure the quality of care offered by family child care providers or relatives according to the same set of guidelines used for center-based care. The most recent indepth observational study of family child care and relative care was published in 1994 by the Families and Work Institute. The study examined the care offered by 226 providers in 3 different communities in California, Texas, and North Carolina (Galinsky et al., 1994). Nonregulated family care providers may be nonregulated because they care for few enough children to be exempt from State regulation requirements, or, as the 1994 study found in their sample, 81 percent of the 54 nonregulated providers were illegally nonregulated, due to the fact that they were actually providing care for a number of children over their State's limit. The quality of all types of family and relative care was determined according to measurements such as the setting's safety and the sensitivity and responsiveness of providers to the children. The study found that only 9 percent of the homes in the study sample were rated as good quality, while 56 percent were rated as adequate, and 35 percent inadequate. The researchers found that quality appeared to be higher when providers were trained and when they were caring for three to six children rather than one or two. As important, if not more so, in determining quality was whether the provider was committed to taking care of children, and had a sense that their work was important; participated in family child care training; thought ahead about the children's activities; was regulated; and followed standard business and safety practices. In the case of relative care, an important factor in the quality of the child's experience was whether the relative caring for the children did so out of desire, necessity, or both. The Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes (1995, 1999) in Child Care Centers study conducted by researchers from four universities beginning in 1993, analyzes the influence of ``typical'' center-based child care on children's development during their preschool years and into elementary school. The ``typical'' centers were represented by a random sample of 401 full-day child care centers, half of them for-profit, half nonprofit, in regions of 4 States: California, Colorado, Connecticut, and North Carolina. Data on the quality and cost of services were collected, as well as data on the developmental progress of a sample of children in the selected centers. Findings from the first phase of the study were released in 1995, and indicated that the quality of child care offered in over three-quarters of these ``typical'' centers in the United States did not meet ``high standards'' according to the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, which ranges from 1 (``low quality'') to 7 (``high quality''). Eleven percent of centers in the sample scored below 3 (``minimally acceptable''). The researchers found that the quality of child care is primarily related to higher staff-to-child ratios, staff education, and administrators' previous experience. Teacher wages and education were also generally higher in higher quality centers. Like the NICHD study, the 1995 Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study also found that centers meeting higher licensing standards provided higher quality care. In addition to examining the status of quality in the centers, the researchers wanted to determine what effects, if any, the quality of care had on children's development. The study's initial findings in 1995 indicated that children's cognitive and social development are positively related to the quality of their child care experience. This proved to be the case even after taking into account factors related to family background and associated with children's development (such as maternal education); the children in the low-quality care still scored lower on measures of cognitive and social development. The findings from the second phase of the study, released in 1999, indicate that there are long-term effects of child care quality on children's development. Similar to the NICHD results, this study indicated that the impact of child care quality on children's development was modest, but consistent, and applied even after taking into account child and family characteristics. The extent to which the effects of quality child care and other early childhood program experiences ``fade out'' over time has long been an area of interest for researchers studying the connection between child care programs and children's development. One of the longest-running research studies in this area is known as the Abecedarian Project, which began in the early 1970s. The project design consisted of a controlled study in which 57 infants, all from low-income families in North Carolina, were randomly assigned to an experimental group that would receive year-round, all-day educational child care/preschool emphasizing cognitive, language, and adaptive behavior skills (Burchinal et al., 1997; Campbell ; Ramey, 1995). The control group of 54 infants received nutritional supplements and supportive social services (as did the experimental group), but did not receive the educational intervention emphasizing language, cognitive, and social development. The Abecedarian Project began in early infancy, and the children received the educational ``treatment'' for 5 years, a longer period than other programs. This study also differs from those discussed earlier in that it focuses solely on disadvantaged, low-income children. Early findings of the project showed that from the age of 18 months through age 5 (the end of the program), children in the treatment group had higher scores on mental tests than children in the control group. In the primary grades through middle adolescence, children from the treatment group scored significantly higher on reading and math tests. Through age 15, the treatment group continued to score higher on mental tests, although the gap between the two groups had narrowed. Most recently, the project's researchers completed a followup study of the project's participants (104 of the original 111) at age 21 (Campbell, 1999). Results showed that the 21-year-olds who had been in the treatment group had significantly higher mental test scores than those from the control group. Likewise, reading and math scores were higher for the treatment group, as had been the case since toddlerhood. Due to the longevity of the project, researchers were also able to look for differences in areas such as college enrollment and employment rates. The followup interviews revealed that about 35 percent of the young adults in the treatment group had either graduated from or were attending a 4 year college or university at the time of the assessment, compared to 14 percent of the control group. A team of researchers from RAND evaluated the results of nine early childhood intervention programs, including the Abecedarian Project (Karoly et al., 1998). The RAND team determined that the nine early intervention programs evaluated in their study provided benefits for the participating disadvantaged children and their families. However, the Rand team pointed out that expanding model, resource-intensive programs like the Abecedarian Project to a larger scale may not necessarily result in the same developmental benefits. THE FEDERAL ROLE Background and Overview The Federal Government entered the child care business during the New Deal of the 1930s when federally funded nursery schools were established for poor children. The motivation for creating these nursery schools was not specifically to provide child care for working families. Rather, the schools were designed primarily to create jobs for unemployed teachers, nurses, and others, and also to provide a wholesome environment for children in poverty. However, when mothers began to enter the work force in large numbers during World War II, many of these nursery schools were continued and expanded. Federal funding for child care, and other community facilities, was available during the war years under the Lanham Act, which financed child care for an estimated 550,000-600,000 children before it was terminated in 1946. The end of the war brought the expectation that mothers would return home to care for their children. However, many women chose to remain at work and the labor force participation of women has increased steadily ever since. The appropriate Federal role in supporting child care, including the extent to which the Federal Government should establish standards for federally funded child care, has been an ongoing topic of debate. In 1988 and 1990, four Federal child care programs were enacted providing child care for families receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), families that formerly received AFDC, low-income working families at risk of becoming dependent on AFDC, and low-income working families generally. The establishment of these programs was the culmination of a lengthy, and often contentious debate, about what role the Federal Government should play in child care. Lasting nearly 4 years, the debate centered on questions about the type of Federal subsidies that should be made available and for whom, whether the Federal Government should set national child care standards, conditions under which religious child care providers could receive Federal funds, and how best to assure optimal choice for parents in selecting child care arrangements for their children, including options that would allow a mother to stay home. Differences stemming from philosophical and partisan views, as well as jurisdictional concerns, were reflected throughout the debate. Though the programs created in 1988 and 1990 represented a significant expansion of Federal support for child care, they joined a large number of existing Federal programs providing early childhood services, administered by numerous Federal agencies and overseen by several congressional committees. The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO; 1994) estimated that in fiscal year 1992 and fiscal year 1993, more than 90 early childhood programs were funded by the Federal Government, administered through 11 Federal agencies and 20 offices. Of these programs, GAO identified 34 as having education or child care as key to their mission. The Congressional Research Service (CRS), in a memo to the House Committee on Ways and Means (Forman, 1994), identified 46 Federal programs related to child care operating in fiscal year 1994, administered by 10 different Federal agencies. However, CRS noted that some of these programs were not primarily child care programs; rather, they were designed for some other major purpose but included some type of child care or related assistance. Moreover, a majority of the programs were small, with 32 of the 46 providing less than $50 million in annual funding. A more recent GAO (1998a) report identified 22 key child care programs, of which 5 accounted for more than 80 percent of total child care spending in fiscal year 1997. In 1996, the 104th Congress passed a major restructuring of Federal welfare programs, including a consolidation of major Federal child care programs into an expanded Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) (Public Law 104-103). The child care provisions in the new law were developed to achieve several purposes. As a component of welfare reform, the child care provisions are intended to support the overall goal of promoting self-sufficiency through work. However, separate from the context of welfare reform, the legislation attempts to address concerns about the effectiveness and efficiency of child care programs. The four separate child care programs that were enacted in 1988 and 1990 had different rules regarding eligibility, time limits on the receipt of assistance, and work requirements. Consistent with other block grant proposals considered in the 104th Congress, the child care provisions in Public Law 104-193 are intended to streamline the Federal role, reduce the number of Federal programs and conflicting rules, and increase the flexibility provided to States. Under the new amendments, the CCDBG is now the primary child care subsidy program operated by the Federal Government, and replaces previous child care programs for welfare and working families (i.e., child care for recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Transitional Child Care Assistance, and the At-Risk Child Care Program). The new law makes available to States almost $20 billion over a 6-year period (1997-2002) in a combination of entitlement and discretionary funding for child care, which is approximately $4 billion above the level that would have been available under the previous programs. Despite this increase in Federal resources, concerns persist about the adequacy and quality of child care in the era of welfare reform. Although welfare caseloads have declined, freeing up potential funds from the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant for use for child care, the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) estimates that in an average month in 1998 only 15 percent of children eligible for Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF) subsidies received them, raising questions of whether total child care funding is adequate (CCDF or otherwise). It should be noted, however, that eligibility figures do not necessarily reflect consumer demand for child care, leaving the issue of whether adequate child care funding exists open to debate. Nonetheless, child care spending has unarguably been increasing every year. In 1998, States drew down all available Federal mandatory CCDF funding and transferred $652 million in Federal TANF dollars in that year to CCDF Programs. If, as many suspect, demand for child care increases alongside dropping welfare rolls and heightened work requirements for welfare recipients, proposals for additional child care funding are likely to be made in the years ahead. Increased demand and Federal resources for child care could cause growth in the supply of child care providers. In May 1997, the U.S. General Accounting Office reported that gaps existed between the demand for child care and the ``known'' supply (i.e., providers that are regulated by or otherwise known to the States), based on research at four sites. These gaps were larger in poor areas and for certain types of care, such as infant and school-aged care. However, since many parents rely on informal care givers, such as relatives and neighbors, who may not be known to State agencies, linking supply and demand for child care can be difficult. A later GAO study reviewed efforts in seven States to expand child care programs (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1998b). The seven States did not know whether their efforts to expand the supply of providers would be sufficient to meet the increased demand expected to result from welfare reform. States' efforts included new provider recruitment; fiscal incentives for providers and businesses to establish or expand child care facilities; and initiatives to increase the use of early childhood development and education programs, such as Head Start and prekindergarten programs. Major Day Care Programs One of the largest Federal sources of child care assistance is provided indirectly through the Tax Code, in the form of a nonrefundable tax credit for taxpayers who work or are seeking work. Other major sources of Federal child care assistance include the CCDBG, the Social Services Block Grant under title XX of the Social Security Act, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant, and the Child Care Food Program, which subsidizes meals for children in child care. Head Start, the early childhood development program targeted to poor preschool children, can also be characterized as a child care program. Although Head Start primarily operates on a part-day, part-year basis, programs increasingly are being linked to other all-day child care providers to better meet the needs of full-time working parents. Assuming that about $1.9 billion will be spent from TANF either directly or by transfer to the CCDBG Block Grant, assuming that 13 percent of the title XX block grant is spent on child care, and counting the tax loss from the dependent care credit as spending, we can estimate that the Federal Government will spend over $15 billion on child care and Head Start in 2000. Child Care and Development Block Grant The Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) was originally authorized as an amendment to the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, and in 1996 was reauthorized (through 2002) and amended by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (Public Law 104-193). The program provides funding for child care services for low-income families, as well as for activities intended to improve the overall quality and supply of child care for families in general. Financing Under the original CCDBG Act, discretionary funds were authorized, subject to the annual appropriations process. As amended by the 1996 welfare reform law, the program is funded by a combination of discretionary and entitlement amounts. The combined total of funds is sometimes referred to as the Child Care and Development Fund. The discretionary funds are authorized at $1 billion annually. However, appropriations surpassed the authorized level in both fiscal years 1999 and 2000, at $1.183 billion. These funds are allocated among States according to the same formula contained in the original CCDBG Act, which is based on each State's share of children under age 5, the State's share of children receiving free or reduced-price lunches, and State per capita income. Half of 1 percent of appropriated funds is reserved for the territories, and between 1 and 2 percent is reserved for payments to Indian tribes and tribal organizations. States are not required to match these discretionary funds. Funds must be obligated in the year they are received or in the subsequent fiscal year, and the law authorizes the Secretary to reallocate unused funds. The welfare reform law also provided entitlement funding to States for child care under the CCDBG. The annual amounts of entitlement funding were $1.967 billion in fiscal year 1997; $2.067 billion in fiscal year 1998; $2.167 billion in fiscal year 1999; $2.367 billion in fiscal year 2000; $2.567 billion in fiscal year 2001; and $2.717 billion in fiscal year 2002. The Secretary must reserve between 1 and 2 percent of entitlement funds for payments to Indian tribes and tribal organizations. After this amount is reserved, remaining entitlement funds are allocated to States in two components. First, each State receives a fixed amount each year, equal to the funding received by the State under the three child care programs previously authorized under AFDC in fiscal year 1994 or fiscal year 1995, or the average of fiscal years 1992-94, whichever is greater. This amount, totals approximately $1.2 billion each year, is sometimes referred to as ``mandatory'' funds. No State match is required for these funds, which may remain available for expenditure by States with no fiscal year limitation. Although no State match is required, to receive their full TANF allotment, States must maintain at least 80 percent of their previous welfare expenditures (referred to as their ``maintenance-of-effort'' requirements), including previous expenditures for welfare-related child care, in fiscal year 1994. After the guaranteed amount is distributed, remaining entitlement funds are distributed to States according to each State's share of children under age 13. States must meet maintenance-of-effort and matching requirements to receive these funds. Specifically, States must spend all of their ``guaranteed'' Federal entitlement funds for child care, plus 100 percent of the amount they spent of their own funds in fiscal year 1994 or fiscal year 1995, whichever is higher, under the previous AFDC-related child care programs. Further, States must provide matching funds at the fiscal year 1995 Medicaid matching rate to receive these additional entitlement funds for child care. If the Secretary determines that a State will not spend its entire allotment for a given fiscal year, then the unused amounts may be redistributed among other States according to those States' share of children under age 13. In addition to amounts provided to States for child care, States may transfer up to 30 percent of their TANF Block Grant into their CCDBG or Social Services Block Grant Programs. Funds transferred into child care must be spent according to the CCDBG rules. However, States also may use TANF funds for child care without formally transferring them to the CCDBG. Eligibility and target population groups Children eligible for services under the revised CCDBG are those whose family income does not exceed 85 percent of the State median. States may adopt income eligibility limits below those in Federal law. Because child care funding is not an entitlement for individuals, States are not required to aid families even if their incomes fall below the State-determined eligibility threshold. Federal law does require States to give priority to families defined in their plans as ``very low income.'' To be eligible for CCDBG funds, children must be less than 13 years old and be living with parents who are working or enrolled in school or training, or be in need of protective services. States must use at least 70 percent of their total entitlement funds for child care services for families that are trying to become independent of TANF through work activities and families that are at risk of becoming dependent on public assistance. In their State plans, States must explain how they will meet the specific child care needs of these families. Of remaining child care funds (including discretionary amounts), States must ensure that a substantial portion is used for child care services to eligible families other than welfare recipients or families at risk of welfare dependency. Use of funds CCDBG funds may be used for child care services provided on a sliding fee scale basis; however, Federal regulations allow States to waive child care fees for families with incomes at or below the poverty line. Funds also may be used for activities to improve the quality or availability of child care. States are required to spend no less than 4 percent of their child care allotments (discretionary and entitlement) for activities to provide comprehensive consumer education to parents and the public, activities that increase parental choice, and activities designed to improve the quality and availability of child care (such as resource and referral services). Child care providers receiving Federal assistance must meet all licensing or regulatory requirements applicable under State or local law. States must have in effect licensing requirements applicable to child care; however, Federal law does not dictate what these licensing requirements should be or what types of providers they should cover. States must establish minimum health and safety standards that cover prevention and control of Infectious Diseases (including immunizations); building and physical premises safety; and health and safety training; and that apply to child care providers receiving block grant assistance (except relative providers). Parents of children eligible to receive subsidized child care must be given maximum choice in selecting a child care provider. Parents must be offered the option to enroll their child with a provider that has a grant or contract with the State to provide such services, or parents may receive a certificate (also sometimes referred to as a voucher) that can be used to purchase child care from a provider of the parents' choice. Child care certificates can be used only to pay for child care services from eligible providers, which can include sectarian child care providers. Eligible providers also can include individuals, age 18 or older, who provide child care for their grandchildren, great grandchildren, nieces or nephews, or siblings (if the provider lives in a separate residence). In fiscal year 1998 certificates were overwhelmingly the form of payment most used, serving over 83 percent of CCDF children nationally. States must establish payment rates for child care services that are sufficient to ensure equal access for eligible children to comparable services provided to children whose parents are not eligible for subsidies. The CCDBG contains specific requirements with regard to the use of funds for religious activities. Under the program, a provider that receives operating assistance through a direct grant or contract with a government agency may not use these funds for any sectarian purpose or activity, including religious worship and instruction. However, a sectarian provider that receives a child care certificate from an eligible parent is not so restricted in the use of funds. Administration and data collection At the Federal level, the CCDBG is administered by the Administration for Children and Families of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). The Secretary is required to coordinate all child care activities within the agency and with similar activities in other Federal agencies. States are required to designate a lead agency to administer the CCDBG, and may use no more than 5 percent of their Federal child care allotment for administrative costs. States must submit disaggregated data on children and families receiving subsidized child care to DHHS every quarter, and aggregate data twice a year. The Secretary is required to submit a report to Congress once every 2 years. The most recent available data from DHHS as submitted by the States is from fiscal year 1998. REFERENCES Adams, G., ; Schulman, K. (1998). Child care challenges. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund. Burchinal, M.R., Campbell, F.A., Bryant, D.M., Wasik, B.H., ; Ramey, C.T. (1997). Early intervention and mediating processes in cognitive performance of children of low-income African-American families. Child Development, 68, 935-54. Campbell, F.A. 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