1. Great Wall of China

This attraction is a symbol of Chinese civilization and intelligence. For sightseeing, there are some sections to recommend:

• Badaling Section - this section is one of the most famous one for travellers. Badaling is the first section of the Great Wall that opened to the public. First constructed in the 18th year of the Hongzhi reign period of the Ming Dynasty in 1505, it was renovated later in Jiajing and Wanli reign of the same Dynasty. With its strategic position, Badaling Section took tremendous labor and materials. The wall of Badaling is tall and solid built by square rocks, and the beacon towers stand one by one. It was a vital protective screen of Beijing city and the important military pass of Ming Dynasty in ancient times. Winding along the ridge of the mountain, Badaling Section of the Great Wall is vividly dragon like.
• Mutianyu Section - Another most popular part for Great Wall fans. The Mutianyu Great Wall has the largest construction scale and best quality among all sections of Great Wall.
• Jinshanling Section - this part is highly recommended by hikers and photographers because of its original style. Without further renovation, Jinshanling Great Wall is an ideal part to catch the past scene at present time. Poems and tablet writings can be found on the Jinshanling Great Wall left from the time Qi Jiguang directed building of this section of the Great Wall.
• Simatai Section - This well-preserved and undeveloped site possesses the most charming scene of the Great Wall. With the breath-taking landscape surrounding the glorious Great Wall, Simatai is the best choice for adventurers and photographers.

2. Yangtze River

Yangtze River is the blood of Chinese. It is rather a highlight of China than a najor tourist attraction. Over 6,300 kilometres long, the mighty Yangtze is the largest and longest river in China, surpassed only by the Nile of Africa and the Amazon of South America. Born of the melting snows and ice in the Tanggula Mountain chain in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, where it is known as Tongtian He, 'Travelling-Through-the-Heavens' River, the torrent flows from west to east through provinces of Qinghai, Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui and Jiangsu and the city of Shanghai, finally flowing into the East China Sea.

• The Upper Reaches begins from the headstream in Qinghai Province to Yichang City in Hubei Province and flow the length of 4,529 kilometers. It is the most attractive section of the Yangtze, famous for its breathtaking mountains, imposing ravines, turbulent rapids and charming landscape. The world famous Three Gorges and the Three Gorges Project are in this section.
• The Middle Reaches is from Yichang City to Hukou City at the mouth of Poyang Lake in Jiangxi Province, with the length of 927 kilometers. Once entera into the second section, the current slows down and the river becomes wider. This region features plain area with many lakes, among which the Dongting and the Poyang are the two largest ones.
• The Lower Reaches is from Hukou to the mouth and 844 kilometers in length. The area is featured by flat delta plain, the crisscrossed canals and waterways as well as the serene waterside villages in south China. In this section, the water is very deep and the river wider. The area is fertile and populous, with the Yangtze River Delta the most economic developed area in China.

Hydrocarbons

There are multiple reasons why the neighboring nations would be interested in the Spratly Islands. In 1968 oil was discovered in the region. The Geology and Mineral Resources Ministry of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has estimated that the Spratly area holds oil and natural gas reserves of 17.7 billion tons (1.60 × 1010 kg), as compared to the 13 billion tons (1.17 × 1010 kg) held by Kuwait, placing it as the fourth largest reserve bed in the world. These large reserves assisted in intensifying the situation and propelled the territorial claims of the neighboring countries.

In 1968, the Philippines started to take their claims more seriously and stationed troops on three islands which had been claimed by the adventurer Tomas Cloma as part of Freedomland.[1] In 1973 Vietnamese troops were stationed on five islands.[2]

On 11 March 1976, the first major Philippine oil discovery occurred off the coast of Palawan, near the Spratly Islands territory, and these oil fields now account for fifteen percent of all petroleum consumed in the Philippines. In 1992, the PRC and Vietnam granted oil exploration contracts to U.S. oil companies that covered overlapping areas in the Spratlys. In May 1992, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and Crestone Energy (a U.S. company based in Denver, Colorado) signed a cooperation contract for the joint exploration of the Wan'an Bei-21block, a 25,155 km² section of the southwestern South China Sea that includes Spratly Island areas. Part of the Crestone's contract covered Vietnam's blocks 133 and 134, where PetroVietnam, PetroStar Energy(USA) and ConocoPhillips Vietnam Exploration & Production, a unit of ConocoPhillips, agreed to evaluate prospects in April 1992. This led to a confrontation between China and Vietnam, with each demanding that the other cancel its contract.

On May 23, 2011, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III warned the Chinese defense minister of a possible arms race in the region if tensions worsened over disputes in the South China Sea. Aquino said he told visiting Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie in their meeting that such an arms race could result if there were more encounters in the disputed and potentially oil-rich Spratly islands. The Philippines warned China that it might increase its military capabilities. [5]

China immediately issued protests over the two submissions and called on the United Nations not to consider them. It also issued a stern warning to countries not to claim the islands which it said were its sovereign territory.[8]

In the early 21st century, the situation is improving. China recently held talks with ASEAN countries aimed at realizing a proposal for a free trade area between the ten countries involved. China and ASEAN have also been engaged in talks to create a code of conduct aimed at easing tensions in the disputed islands. In November 2002, a Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea was signed.[9] The parties explicitly undertook in this declaration, "to resolve their territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means, without resorting to the threat or use of force, through friendly consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly concerned,".[9] The declaration eases tensions, but falls short of a legally binding code of conduct.[citation needed]

In the interim, the parties pledged to carry out confidence building measures, such as by holding dialogues and exchange of views as appropriate between their defense and military officials; ensuring just and humane treatment of all persons who are in danger or distress; notifying on a voluntary basis other Parties concerned of any impending joint/combined military exercise; and exchanging, on a voluntary basis, relevant information.

The Parties may also explore or undertake cooperative activities such as marine environmental protection; marine scientific research; safety of navigation and communication at sea; search and rescue operation; and combating transnational crime, including but not limited to trafficking in illicit drugs, piracy and armed robbery at sea, and illegal traffic in arms.

Brunei claims the part of the South China Seas nearest to it as part of its continental shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). In 1984, Brunei declared an EEZ encompassing the above-water islets it claims in Louisa Reef.[3][15] Brunei does not practice military control in the area.

Brunei's claims to the reef are based on the Law of the Sea.[16] It states that the southern part of the Spratly Chain is actually a part of its continental shelf and therefore a part of its territory and resources.[17]

Malaysia has militarily occupied three islands that it considers to be within its continental shelf. Swallow Reef (Layang Layang) has been turned into an island through land reclamation and hosts a dive resort.

The Malaysian military currently occupies Ardasier Reef (Terumbu Ubi), Mariveles Reef (Terumbu Mantanani) and Swallow Reef (Terumbu Layang or Pulau Layang Layang).[15]

Malaysia's claims are based upon the continental shelf principle, and have clearly defined coordinates. This argument still requires that the islands were res nullius, though.[18][15]

The Republic of China (ROC), which ruled mainland China before 1949 and has been confined to Taiwan since 1949, also claims all of the Spratly Islands. Today, the People's Liberation Army and the Republic of China Armed Forces are both stationed in several islands, including the largest, Taiping Island - occupied by ROC.

From 1932 to 1935, the ROC continued to include the territory in its administrative area through the Map Compilation Committee. When France claimed nine islands of the territory in 1933, it immediately encountered a revolt from Chinese fishermen and a protest from the Republic of China government in Nanking. Although China continued to claim the islands, the Second Sino-Japanese war drew its attention for the meantime from 1937 onwards. After the second world war, China reclaimed sovereignty over the islands through post World War II arrangements based on various treaties of the Allied Powers[19] and China built a stone marker on the island.

In 1947, the ROC government renamed 159 islands in the area and published the Map of the South China Sea Islands. The ROC was the first government to establish a physical presence in the Spratly Islands. It has occupied Taiping Island, the largest island in the Spratlys, constantly since 1956.[20]

In 1958, North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng sent a formal note to Zhou Enlai.

In 1958, the People's Republic of China, having taken over mainland China and having left the Republic of China with control over Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and some outlying islands, issued a declaration of a 12 nautical mile limit territorial waters that encompassed the Spratly Islands. North Vietnam's prime minister, Phạm Văn Đồng, sent a formal note to PRC's Premier Zhou Enlai to recognize these claims; and stated that the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) respects the decision on the 12 nautical mile limit territorial waters, although South Vietnam continued to claim sovereignty over the islands.

The PRC and ROC base their claims on the belief that the islands have been an integral part of China for nearly two thousand years and that neighboring countries and European Powers took advantage of China's poor condition and diversity to impinge on its sovereignty.

China claims to have discovered the islands in the Han Dynasty in 2 BC. The islands were claimed to have been marked on maps compiled during the time of Eastern Han Dynasty and Eastern Wu (one of the Three Kingdoms). Since the Yuan Dynasty in the 12th century, several islands that may be the Spratlys have been labeled as Chinese territory,[21] followed by the Ming Dynasty[22] and the Qing Dynasty from the 13th to 19th Century.[23] In 1755,[24][25] archaeological surveys the remains of Chinese pottery and coins have been found in the islands and are cited as proof for the PRC claim.[26]

In addition, the PRC's military presence ensures a tangible claim to other potential challengers of sovereignty over at least those inhabited areas.

Surveying an area without establishing a civilization there or a military garrison does not hold the same political weight as staking an official claim. However, the PRC's claim to the Spratly Islands is grounded in the philosophy that since they were present there first they rightly have sovereignty.

Many of these claims to sovereignty come directly from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. There is also doubt as to whether these sources state a claim of sovereignty or simply mention the Spratlys alongside other foreign lands.

Claims of pottery being found are mostly shipwrecked treasure from Chinese galleons that sailed through the area and did not necessarily come from anyone who inhabited or even visited the islands.[26]

This is an anachronistic claim however, because the Philippines did not register these claims until the 1970s. In 1956, a private Filipino citizen, Tomas Cloma, unilaterally declared a state on 53 features in the South China Sea, calling it "Freedomland". As the Republic of China moved to occupy the main island in response, Cloma sold his claim to the Philippine government, which annexed (de jure) the islands in 1978, calling them Kalayaan. On June 11, 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines issued Presidential decree No. 1596, declaring the Spratly Islands (referred to therein as the Kalayaan Island Group) as Philippine territory.[27]

The Philippine claim to Kalayaan on a geographical basis can be summarized using the assertion that Kalayaan is distinct from other island groups in the South China Sea, because of the size of the biggest island in the Kalayaan group.[citation needed] A second argument used by the Philippines regarding their geographical claim over the Spratlys is that all the islands claimed by the Philippines lie within its 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone according to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This argument still requires that the islands were res nullius, though.[28] The Philippines also argue, under maritime law that the People's Republic of China can not extend its baseline claims to the Spratlys because the PRC is not an archipelagic state.

Vietnam's view is that the Chinese records do not constitute the declaration and exercise of sovereignty and that China did not declare sovereignty over the Spratlys until after World War II.

On the other hand, Vietnam claims the Spratlys based on international law on declaring and exercising sovereignty. A European colonial map depicting the islands as Vietnamese territory.

Vietnam People's Navy's soldiers marching on Spratly island

Vietnamese claims that it has occupied the Spratley and the Paracel islands at least since the 17th century, when they were not under the sovereignty of any state, and that they exercised sovereignty over the two archipelagos continuously and peacefully until they were invaded by Chinese armed forces.[32] In Phủ Biên Tạp Lục (Miscellaneous Records of Pacification in the Border Area) by the scholar Lê Quý Đôn, Hoàng Sa (Paracel Islands), and Trường Sa (Spratly Islands) were defined as belonging to Quảng Ngãi District. In Đại Nam Nhất Thống Toàn Đồ (Dai Nam Unified Map), an atlas of Vietnam completed in 1838, Trường Sa was shown as Vietnamese territory.[citation needed] Vietnam had conducted many geographical and resource surveys of the islands.[citation needed] The results of these surveys have been recorded in Vietnamese literature and history published since the 17th century. After the treaty signed with the Nguyễn Dynasty, France represented Vietnam in international affairs and exercised sovereignty over the islands.[citation needed]

The Cairo Declaration, drafted by the Allies and China towards the end of World War II, listed the territories that the Allies intended to strip from Japan and return to China. Despite China being among the authors of the declaration, this list did not include the Spratlys.[citation needed] Vietnam's response to China's claim that the Cairo Declaration somehow recognized the latter's sovereignty over the Spratlys is that this claim has no basis in fact.

At the San Francisco Conference on the peace treaty with Japan, the Soviet Union proposed that the Paracels and Spratlys be recognized as belonging to China. This proposal was rejected by an overwhelming majority of the delegates. On July 7, 1951, Tran Van Huu, head of the Bảo Đại Government's delegation to the conference declared that the Paracels and Spratlys were part of Vietnamese territory. This declaration met with no challenge from the 51 representatives at the conference.[citation needed]

The text of the Treaty of San Francisco listed the Spratlys as not part of the list of territories to be returned to China.[33]

After the French left, the Vietnamese government exercised sovereignty over the islands.[dubious - discuss] Up to the end of the Vietnam War the army of the South Vietnamese still held military control over the majority of the Spratly islands. After the Vietnam War, the unified Vietnam SRV (Socialist Republic of Vietnam) continued to claim the Spratly islands as an integral part of Vietnam, accordingly the Phan Van Dong DRV notice to the PRC in 1958 had not ceded the ROV and consequently the SRV claims, hence that Notice became of no effect on the ROV/SRV rights.

Vietnam currently occupies 31 islands. They are organized as a district of Khanh Hoa Province. At the 12th National Assembly Election held early in Trường Sa, the people and soldiers also voted for their local district government for the first time. For the first time, Trường Sa is organized like a normal inland district, with a townlet (thị trấn Trường Sa) and two communes (xã Sinh Tồn, xã Song Tử Tây). Forty nine people were elected to the communes' people's councils.

• Soldiers and/or civilian citizens of a country are present in the feature, either by building structures over the feature to house the citizens (most features are of this type) or by manning a ship anchored over the feature (Philippine-occupied Irving Reef is of this type).
• Regularly visited by soldiers of a country, not necessarily having soldiers present in it 24 hours. These features must lie near (within 9 miles (14 km)) a feature occupied by the country in the way of the first condition. Presence of structures is not necessary. This is the case of Philippine-occupied Flat Island and Lankiam Cay where soldiers stationed at Nanshan Island and Loaita Island respectively, regularly visit on a daily basis.

The effective visible distance of horizon from a 15 meter (typical large structure) height above sea-level is 9 miles (14 km). This makes features occupied by the second condition to be also labeled as "occupied" since they can be guarded far away. However not all features within the 9-mile (14 km) radius can be considered as absolutely occupied. This is especially true for features that lie between and within 9 miles (14 km) of two or more features occupied by different countries. (See Virtually Occupied or Controlled table)