DEFRA, the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, has been working to help the government enact sustainable policies. They also have been working on legislation to reduce climate change.

Ragwort

No but you need to inform DEFRA if you keep livestock.

There are multiple short video clips available through the UK's DEFRA website - plug "DEFRA BSE video" into a search engine and it should return the website.

DEFRA in the UK, oversees Environmental, Food and Agricultural issues.

no not in the uk,but if you were using them in farming ie for milk or meat possibly you will need to check with defra.

No, Herbert Hoover did not defraud the government in the sale of its foreign properties during the Harding Administration. Thomas W. Miller, one of the dirty politicians, defrauded it.

Diffraction is the bending of waves around an object.

In law 48, what is a creditor? Is law 48 fair to creditors?

In simple structure,there is only common stock.There are no potentially dilutive securities.

In complex structure potentially dilutive securities are present.

Dilutive here means that the securities are capable of affecting the earnings per share in a downward direction.

the securities are simply either bonds,option,etc

I got a job to help defray the cost of my college loans.

Defrag simply compacts and organizes files and folders on your hard drive.

The problem arises because of the way data is stored on the hard drive.

When you delete a file, all you are doing is removing the index, of where the data is really stored.

When you then save stuff, reference is made to the index, to find out where the free areas are, on the disc. Use is made of all the free areas on the disc.

The free spaces may be smaller than the new file being stored. So the file is broken up and parts of it located all over the physical drive, blotting up the free space.

Over time, your drive is full of fragmented files and the drive has to work harder and longer to find all pieces of file, slowing it down.

'Defrag' locates all pieces of broken files and writes them to a fresh area of the disc, so that they are located in one 'contiguous' physical space. It then clears the disc where they were located. Once enough clear area is provided the whole files are then relocated into the space in such a manner as to keep all relevant files close together and so speed up the access time of the hard drive.

Have you ever said: "I just wish I could speed up my PC?" Well, now you can. The reason that it is running slowly might be that the information on the hard drive is scattered all over the place. This means that it takes the computer much longer to find what it needs. You can use a defragmentation program to bring all of these bits of information closer together, and your computer will speed up.

You need to make sure that you defragment your laptop once a month. For those who use PCs notebooks are very popular. Despite this, many of the users do not know how valuable a defragmentation can be. It can take all of the information on your hard drive and move it closer together. This will help to increase the speed of the computer, reducing the time that it takes to do certain tasks and searches.

The answer to this question depends exactly on where in the world you live and so you will need to check with your own local agricultural department.

In the UK, the answer is that you need to register with Defra to obtain a CPH number, and then you will need to notify all pig movements, even if you only have a single pet pig that you want to take for a walk along the street.

According to SOWPODS (the combination of Scrabble dictionaries used around the world) there are 2 words with the pattern DEFRA-. That is, six letter words with 1st letter D and 2nd letter E and 3rd letter F and 4th letter R and 5th letter A. In alphabetical order, they are:

defrag

defray

Alun Michael has: Played himself in "Question Time" in 1979. Played himself in "A Week in Politics" in 1982. Played Himself - DEFRA Lead Minister in "Countryfile" in 1988. Played himself in "The Sunday Programme" in 1994. Played Himself - Labour in "The Daily Politics" in 2003. Played Himself - Rural Affairs Minister in "Election Night" in 2005. Played himself in "Election Night" in 2007. Played Himself - Former Labour MP in "Great Welsh Writers" in 2013.

Yes, spices are not prohibited, here is the advice from HM customs, correct as at 1st January 2007, if your still in doubt there is a UK contact phone number to ring.... TRAVELLING TO THE UK FROM OUTSIDE THE EUROPEAN UNION Certain goods are prohibited or restricted to protect health and the environment. Certain plants and their produce, including trees, shrubs, potatoes, certain fruit, bulbs and seeds. For advice call DEFRA Plant Health, 08459 335577. For an overview of the rules, please refer to the plant and plant products 'If in doubt, leave it out!' leaflet.

"The answer to this question depends on the country. In the United States, for example, it is called the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the United Kingdom, it is called the Food Standards Agency (FSA). Different countries have different agencies with different names."

According to DEFRA, for the canines of the following genera, you do not need any kind of license to own one as a pet in the UK

Alopex - Arctic Fox,

Cerdocyon - Crab-Eating Fox,

Otocyon - Bat-Eared Fox,

Psuedolopex - Argentine Grey Fox,

Urocyon - Island Fox,

Vulpes - Red Fox.

You would therefore need a license for species like the Kit Fox, or the Fennec.

In many places, including the United States and the United Kingdom, you usually need a special permit or license to own a meerkat as they are considered exotic animals. Ownership regulations may vary depending on location, so it's important to check with local authorities before acquiring one.

The Environment Agency for England and Wales has a budget of (2010) of £1.25 billion (£1,250,000,000). 60 per cent of this comes from central government - from the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), and the Department for Environment, Sustainability and Housing in the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG). This is called grant in aid (GIA).

The remainder of our income comes from charging schemes and local authority flood defence levies. We charge for boat and fishing licences, licences to abstract water, and permits for waste, nuclear and other businesses, amongst other things. On occasion we also work with other organisations to obtain funding from European Union and other sources to fund projects which improve the environment in England and Wales.

Pets travel in the cargo section of the plane, which is in the hold. They have to be packed with adequate space around them and then they are placed in their cage on the floor of the hold with oxygen getting through the bars of the cage, but suitcases all around them. They cannot be sedated in case they come around during the flight and panic, giving themselves a heart attack. The sound of the engines starting up at the beginning of the flight may have the same effect. So, the kind of plane that a pet can go on is proportional to the size of the pet and how much room it's going to take up in the cargo section. Average sized dogs would probably only go on large planes the size of a jumbo jet. The big airlines take animals. There is a list of all those that take animals and the phone numbers to make enquiries on the DEFRA web site. Department for Environment and Farming.

There's too many variables here to be able to answer this question.

However, just for example, the US average yield from all states of all barley types for the period from 2006 through 2011 is 66.7 bushels per acre, according to the USDA.

There are no accurate figures for the numbers of horses and ponies present in the UK. It has been estimated as lying somewhere between 600,000 and 1.2 million. The number of donkeys is thought to be about 10,000, but no one knows the exact figure. We do have information on the numbers of horses kept on farms which we collect from the census of farmers in June every year. However this does not tell us about horses kept by others. A new system is now in place which will help us obtain this information. All horse owners are required to obtain a passport for every horse they own. This applies to ponies and donkeys too. The organisations issuing the passports will transfer the details of the animals including where they are kept to a National Equine Database. This means that in future we shall have much more accurate information on their numbers. Details of numbers of horses kept on UK farms are available from the census data. Also, Defra and the British Horse Industry Confederation have carried out research looking in detail at the horse industry in GB, both how it works and its economic value to society. Further information on horse issues in Government can be found on the Horse Gateway. There are no accurate figures for the numbers of horses and ponies present in the UK. It has been estimated as lying somewhere between 600,000 and 1.2 million. The number of donkeys is thought to be about 10,000, but no one knows the exact figure. We do have information on the numbers of horses kept on farms which we collect from the census of farmers in June every year. However this does not tell us about horses kept by others. A new system is now in place which will help us obtain this information. All horse owners are required to obtain a passport for every horse they own. This applies to ponies and donkeys too. The organisations issuing the passports will transfer the details of the animals including where they are kept to a National Equine Database. This means that in future we shall have much more accurate information on their numbers. Details of numbers of horses kept on UK farms are available from the census data. Also, Defra and the British Horse Industry Confederation have carried out research looking in detail at the horse industry in GB, both how it works and its economic value to society. Further information on horse issues in Government can be found on the Horse Gateway.

Harrison Holidays, based in King's Lynn, served Norfolk, Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire for more than 50 years but Norwichbased administrators Parker Andrews have now been appointed to try and sell the business. Some 220 holidaymakers and daytrippers from across the NFL Black Friday area, who have paid 250,000 upfront to the company, now face an anxious wait to see if their plans are honoured or their cash returned. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has done much to try to understand why the bee population in Britain, the EU and the USA is declining. In the UK alone the number of managed honey bee colonies in the UK fell by 53% between 1985 and 2005.Defra is implementing the Healthy Bees Plan working with beekeepers to provide training and to respond to pest and disease threats. "But I get up at 3:30 in the morning and I'm here at 5," says Karen. "It's upsetting to me NFL Black Friday almost. I clock into my job at 7, and I come home and I don't get home till 6 o'clock. And just keeping these horses fed, and all this goin', it's more than I wouldn't wish on anybody." Avenue is the street I grew up off of in New Jersey, Jenkins said Monday, still dressed in his full pads after training camp practice. like we embrace people to come into the neighborhood type of thing. Rock Avenue is what influenced me so come NFL Black Friday deals join the neighborhood. in the locker room for being one of the team most fashionable players, Jenkins at first balked at his wife suggestion that he get into the bow tie business.always looking for stuff and I can really find ones that I like to wear so my wife was like, you should just make your own, Jenkins said.Morrisa, his wife, told him her mom was a seamstress and she knew how to sew. One man against one man, said competitor Anthony Loria from Long Island who trains in the borough. Big Apple Grapple International Arm Wrestling Championship brought together pros and beginners alike to the bar, at 14905 Union Turnpike, where the mood during the severalhour event was spirited, with beerswilling onlookers cheering on sweatdrenched competitors. Many German and Irish immigrants settled cheap jerseys from china in Newark from 1840 and 1860 to fill industrial jobs. By 1860, Newark had nearly 72,000 people. The surge of immigration of eastern and southern Europeans began in the 1880s. In 1930, the population had risen to 350,000. Port Newark debuted in 1915 during World War I. Newark's chemical industry expanded during this war and the 1920s. By 1930, the population was close to 450,000.

Marine scientists research the sea, its life forms and surrounding coastal areas. They analyse the sea and its interaction with the land, atmosphere and sea floors. They apply their knowledge for use by, among others, governments, universities and environmental assessment bodies. Work activities can be office, laboratory, or field-based. Tasks typically involve: * undertaking laboratory-based research and managing projects; * conducting research in various places, including at sea; * collecting samples, often in difficult weather conditions; * observing physical, chemical and biological processes; * carrying out practical tasks, such as boat handling or tagging sharks; * following detailed identification keys when classifying species and samples; * working with computer databases and specialist software to analyse information, e.g. the diving speed of seals, or species numbers in population counts; * maintaining accurate records and paperwork; * preparing detailed reports, such as environmental impact assessments for agencies or governmental organisations, e.g. the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA); * building new research theories, testing hypotheses and designing scientific experiments; * travelling to sea, and possibly to other countries, for field-based research; * costing, planning and writing grant proposals, as well as identifying new sources of funding; * preparing research papers for journals and other specialist publications; * presenting research findings at conferences; * keeping up to date with new research and technologies and attending training courses; * liaising with colleagues across the field and managing staff; * lecturing on specialist subjects, if based in an academic institution; * conducting educational and awareness-raising work, such as talks, with the general public (this might involve explaining complex scientific concepts in simple language).

Tsunamis are rare in the Atlantic Ocean and have not been known to make landfall in England. The most likely cause of a tsunami in England would be a submarine landslide or volcanic eruption in the North Atlantic, but the risk is considered low.

The cast of Countryfile - 1988 includes: Catherine Atkinson as Herself - National Trust Chris Baines as himself Chris Baines as Himself - Presenter Ian Baird as himself Matt Baker as Himself - Presenter Chris Bonington as himself Julia Bradbury as Herself - Presenter Jo Brand as herself Ian Breach as himself Ian Breach as Himself - Presenter Prince Charles as himself Oz Clarke as himself Hannah Cockroft as herself Ruth Coulthard as Herself - Brecon Beacons National Park Jon Culshaw as himself Birgit Cunningham as herself Phil Davey as Himself - English Nature Michael Eavis as himself Andre Farrar as Himself - RSPB Spokesman Ben Fogle as Himself - Presenter Ben Fogle as Himself - Reporter Ben Fogle as Presenter (2001-) Jenny Frew as Herself - English Heritage Dusty Gedge as Himself - Living Roofs Campaigner Norman Gillies as Himself - St Kilda Evacuee Andy Goldsworthy as Himself - Artist Suzanna Hamilton as herself Chris Hawkesworth as himself Tom Heap as himself Tom Heap as Himself - Reporter Wayne Hemingway as himself Adam Henson as Himself - Presenter Adam Henson as Himself - Reporter Adam Henson as Presenter (2001-) Joss Hibbs as Herself - Powdermills Pottery Eamonn Holmes as himself Dave Hurford as Himself - Fisherman Nigel Joice as Himself - National Farmers Union Roger Keys as himself Katie Knapman as Herself - Reporter Bob Langley as himself Ruth Langsford as herself Patrick Lichfield as himself Karl Longbottom as Himself - Kitemaker Ernest Marples as Himself - Transport Minister 1963 Alex McClennan as Himself - Forestry Commission Alun Michael as Himself - DEFRA Lead Minister David Miliband as himself George Monbiot as himself Juliet Morris as Herself - Presenter Juliet Morris as Herself - Reporter Juliet Morris as Presenter Sophie Neville as herself Paul Nichol as Himself - Kielder Partnership Chris Packham as himself Katrina Porteous as Herself - Historian Robert Powell as himself Jim Rees as Himself - Green Dragon Railway Project Helen Reeves as Herself - Olympic Canoeist Kim Riley as Reporter Tomasz Schafernaker as Himself - Weather Presenter Matt Shardlow as himself Peter Sharpe as Himself - Kielder Partnership Curator Michaela Strachan as Herself - Presenter Michaela Strachan as Herself - Reporter Michaela Strachan as Presenter (1999 -) James Symonds as Himself - Archaeologist Roger Tabor as himself Roger Tabor as Himself - Presenter John Tangye Lean as himself Alan Titchmarsh as himself Wolfgang Weileder as Himself - Artist Tony Wells as himself Judi Whitton as Herself - Artist Norman Wisdom as himself Terry Wogan as himself

Most definatley, back in 1755 there was an earth quake in Lisbon, this caused a Tsunami to hit Mount's Bay, although the subdued waves had little effect.

Below is areport from Steve Connor, science editor of the Independant paper, London.

A wave higher than Nelson's Column and travelling faster than a jet aircraft will devastate the eastern seaboard of America and inundate much of southern Britain, say scientists who have analysed the effects of a future volcanic eruption in the Canary Islands.

A massive slab of rock twice the volume of the Isle of Man would break away from the island of La Palma and smash into the Atlantic Ocean to cause a tsunami - a monster wave - bigger than any recorded, the scientists warned yesterday.

Most of the wave's energy, equivalent to the combined output of America's power stations for six months, would travel westwards to the American coast but enough would be flicked north towards the English Channel to cause catastrophic coastal damage.

A computer model has been designed to show the way the tsunami will build after the volcano, called Cumbre Vieja, erupts on La Palma, at the western end of the Spanish island chain. It describes the almost unimaginable scale of an event that the scientists say could happen at any time within the foreseeable future.

"We're looking at an event that could be decades or a century away - but there will be a degree of warning beforehand," said Simon Day, of the Benfield Greg Hazard Reseach Centre at Univeristy College London.

Most of the rocky western flank of Cumbre Vieja is unstable enough to be dislodged in the next big eruption of the volcano, which is active enough to explode at least once or twice a century. Its last big event was in 1949.

***

Edited March 2011.

Just to add that recent research has shown that this original report of vast Tsunami waves from the Cumbre Viega volcano can be now partly dismissed. It is now thought that any landslip on this volcano will be gradual and not fast.

According to the DEFRA report, commissioned after the 2004 Indonesian Tsunami, on potential impact of future Tsunami on Britain. It is now estimated that the wave size to hit the UK is now only around 2m.

However the Lisbon quake could be repeated and so another small Tsunami might hit the Mount's bay area again, but you will get around 4 hours warning, but it won't be huge like the ones in the pacific, just some larger waves than normal, up to around 2.4 m.

Tail docking of dogs is a controversial and often illegal practice in many jurisdictions. You should first check the laws in your area to see if tail docking is allowed and under what circumstances. If it is legal, you may need a veterinary license or specific training to perform the procedure.

David Simeon has: Played Dr. Gareth Bird in "Coronation Street" in 1960. Played Bobby Simpson in "Coronation Street" in 1960. Played Ian Hollis in "Comedy Playhouse" in 1961. Played Don Walker in "Z Cars" in 1962. Performed in "The Dick Emery Show" in 1963. Played Alastair Fergus in "Doctor Who" in 1963. Played Private Latimer in "Doctor Who" in 1963. Played Police Constable in "Sherlock Holmes" in 1964. Played Frank Hudson in "Sexton Blake" in 1967. Performed in "ITV Playhouse" in 1967. Played Prisoner in "The Expert" in 1968. Played Student in "Counterstrike" in 1969. Played Earl in "The Liver Birds" in 1969. Played Kitchen porter in "Big Breadwinner Hog" in 1969. Played Student in "Special Branch" in 1969. Played TV Reporter in "Paul Temple" in 1969. Played Tony in "The Liver Birds" in 1969. Played Davies in "Play for Today" in 1970. Played Post Office Clerk in "Connecting Rooms" in 1970. Played Jumbo in "A Family at War" in 1970. Played Desk Clerk in "Codename" in 1970. Played Estate Agent in "Freelance" in 1971. Played Mr. Dunkerley in "Love and Mr Lewisham" in 1972. Played Mechanic in "The Moonstone" in 1972. Played Flight Sergeant Bert May in "The Pathfinders" in 1972. Played Richard in "Sykes" in 1972. Played Bruce in "No Strings" in 1974. Played Hughie Evans in "Angels" in 1975. Played Dr. Levy in "Angels" in 1975. Played Mr. Mackenzie in "Fawlty Towers" in 1975. Played Alan Crich in "Against the Crowd" in 1975. Performed in "Angels" in 1975. Played Businessman in "Meetings, Bloody Meetings" in 1976. Performed in "The Dick Emery Show" in 1976. Played Richard Woodford in "The Many Wives of Patrick" in 1976. Played Johnny Baxter in "The Other One" in 1977. Played Doctor in "No Appointment Necessary" in 1977. Played David in "Rings on Their Fingers" in 1978. Played Gerald in "Rings on Their Fingers" in 1978. Played Gas man in "End of Part One" in 1979. Played Mr. Barton in "Two People" in 1979. Played Various Characters in "End of Part One" in 1979. Played Assistant Manager in "Minder" in 1979. Played Les Miserables in "End of Part One" in 1979. Played Henry in "Minder" in 1979. Played Surveyor in "The Latchkey Children" in 1980. Performed in "Sweet William" in 1980. Played Mr. Blinkhorn in "Vice Versa" in 1981. Played Philip Lassiter in "The New Adventures of Lucky Jim" in 1982. Played David Farrell in "Jury" in 1983. Played Reporter in "Ever Decreasing Circles" in 1984. Performed in "The Lenny Henry Show" in 1984. Played DI Graveson in "The Bill" in 1984. Played Jack Gaunt in "The Bill" in 1984. Played Rambler in "Screen One" in 1985. Played Ernest Woolcott in "High and Dry" in 1985. Played Dougie in "EastEnders" in 1985. Played Bob Bates in "Casualty" in 1986. Played Gillman in "Call Me Mister" in 1986. Played Prison Officer Nichols in "Casualty" in 1986. Played Franklyn in "Boon" in 1986. Played George in "A Small Problem" in 1987. Played P.C. Austin in "The New Statesman" in 1987. Played Fred Peters in "Bust" in 1987. Played PC Mathews in "The New Statesman" in 1987. Played Clerk of Court (Old Bailey) in "A Fish Called Wanda" in 1988. Played Mr. Plackett in "The Shell Seekers" in 1989. Played Priest in "The Paradise Club" in 1989. Played Roughead in "Birds of a Feather" in 1989. Played Mr. Grist in "Surgical Spirit" in 1989. Played Reg Gurney in "Making News" in 1990. Played Wilding in "The Chief" in 1990. Played the Auctioneer in "Keeping Up Appearances" in 1990. Played Billington in "The House of Eliott" in 1991. Played Ken Cave in "Moon and Son" in 1992. Played Cave in "Moon and Son" in 1992. Played Nightclub Owner in "Goodnight Sweetheart" in 1993. Played Mayor Norton in "An Independent Man" in 1995. Played Mayor Alex Norton in "An Independent Man" in 1995. Played Priestley in "Silent Witness" in 1996. Played Det. Insp. Palmer in "Expert Witness" in 1996. Played Mr. Mackenzie in "The Grand" in 1997. Played Magistrate in "Berkeley Square" in 1998. Played Ken Kennedy in "Lucy Sullivan Is Getting Married" in 1999. Played Gerald Taft in "Doctors" in 2000. Played Defra Official in "Down to Earth" in 2000. Played Middle-Aged Gent in "Tipping the Velvet" in 2002. Played Herbert in "Eat Yourself Slim" in 2005.

Goats require shelter from extreme weather, access to clean water, a balanced diet of hay and grass, proper fencing to keep them safe from predators, and regular veterinary care to stay healthy. They are also social animals and do best in groups or pairs to prevent loneliness and stress.

The US Department of Agriculture sets standards that define thefarming practices that must be followed for a foor to be labeled as organic in the United States. The requirements are different for different products. The details are too extensive and complex to lay out in this forum. Search for "organic standardsd" on the US Department of Agriculture web site.

Overall, organic operations must demonstrate that they are protecting natural resources, conserving biodiversity, and using only approved substances.

Other countries set their own standards, which may be similar to or significantly different from the US standards.

Semester II Public Policy and Strategy

1.0 Introduction

Prior to get on any policy programme or project, it is important to give adequate consideration to how it will be managed and resourced. Some aspects of the policy making process are very time-consuming, and effective planning is essential.

Policy-making is habitually underestimated and misunderstood, yet it is the central role of the city, town, and county legislative bodies. The policies created by our local governments affect everyone in the community in some way. Public policy determines what services will be provided to the residents and the level of those services, what kinds of development will occur in the community, and it determines what the community's future will be.

Evidence-Based Policy Making has become a major part of government's approaches to policy making. So through out the assignment document I would like to discuss about the basic understanding of the policy making and how the evidence base (especially Empirical Methods) will improve the Policy making process

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2.0 What Is Policy Mean ?

Policy mean a definite Course or Method of action selected (by government, institution, group or individual) from among alternatives and in the light of given conditions to guide and, usually, to determine present and future decisions.

In the other way policy is defined as: "a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or individual" (From Oxford Dictionary)

Policies are "made" and "implemented" yet it is possible to have policies that are not or cannot be implemented, so that, conceptually, actions that implement policies need not necessarily be part of policy itself.

3.0 Where does Policy Originate?

The traditional constitutional framework of policy-making suggests that politicians make policy and public servants implement it. In practice, this offers a limited understanding of policy-making, which fails to recognize the many competing factors which shape the way policy is formulated, implemented and evaluated

Policies can come from various sources: Ministers, party manifestos, Assembly Committees, international commitments, EU Directives, pressure for change from professionals within a particular part of the public service, research evidence, public opinion and lobbying from the voluntary and community sector, as well as from the planned review of existing policies. Often, the pressure for change will come from several of these sources at once

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4.0 What Is Policy Making?

Policy-making is the process by which governments translate their political vision into programmes and actions to deliver 'outcomes' - desired change in the real world. Thus policy-making is a fundamental function of any government.

The process of policy-making is not a high science, but it is difficult to do well. As in any process, there are tools and techniques that can help in doing the job more effectively. Public policy operates in an extremely wide environment. Governments have obligations to, and are answerable to, every part of civic society. Policy-making often requires a department or the administration as a whole to strike a balance among a wide range of competing interests without losing sight of the desired policy outcome.

4.1 Policy-Making in Current Situation

The world for which policies have to be developed is becoming increasingly complex, uncertain and unpredictable. Citizens are better informed, have rising expectations and are making growing demands for services tailored to their individual needs. Key policy issues, such as social need, low educational achievement and poor health, are connected and cannot be tackled effectively by departments or agencies acting individually. In addition, devolution introduces a system of government which is designed to be more joined-up and responsive than in the past

At the same time, the world is increasingly inter-connected and inter-dependent. National and global events and trends can very quickly become major issues for a regional administration

For example, Swine Flu, Dengue Fever disease outbreak in 2009, rapid Necessity in Admission Of Primary Education, adaptation of information and communications technology and a wide range of interests needs to be co-coordinated and harnessed. In parallel with these external pressures, Ministers expect a focus on solutions

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that work across existing organizational boundaries and on bringing about real change. Civil servants must adapt to this new, fast-moving, challenging environment if public policy is to remain credible and effective.

4.2 Evidence-Based Policy Making

It is crucial that policy decisions should be based on sound evidence. Good quality policy-making depends on high quality information, derived from a variety of sources - expert knowledge; existing local, national and international research; existing statistics; stakeholder consultation; evaluation of previous policies; new research, if appropriate; or secondary sources, including the internet. To be as effective as possible, evidence needs to be provided by, and/or be interpreted by, experts in the field working closely with policy makers.

For example, statisticians, economists, medical officers, inspectors, scientists, and social researchers these professionals should know what relevant published statistics are available and be in touch with the latest research evidence and best practice internationally in the relevant policy areas. They can also advise on commissioning new research and generally point policy-makers in the right direction.

However, evidence is not something that is only generated by external research. In any policy area there is a great deal of important evidence held by both frontline managers and staff in departments, agencies, Boards, schools, hospitals, etc, and the citizen, customer or consumer to whom the policy is directed. Very often these groups will have a clearer idea than the policy makers about what the problems are, why the situation is as it is and why previous initiatives did or did not work.

They are also well placed to advice on how a new policy can be put into practice on the ground and what pitfalls need to be avoided. Gathering that evidence through interviews, surveys or focus groups can provide a very valuable input to the policy

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making process and can often be done much more quickly than more conventional research. It may well also help to avoid expensive mistakes later

There Are Different Types of Evidence

􀂮

Systematic Reviews

􀂮

Single Studies

􀂮

Pilot Studies and Case Studies

􀂮

Experts' Evidence

􀂮

Internet Evidence

These kinds of evidence can be supported by empirical methods to project the out comes which will give and guide the policy makers to get the clear idea and produce the better policy making outputs which Leeds to the well formed realistic and implemental Policies to the society

In order to define the role of policy analysis, we need to distinguish between two major processes. These are:

􀂮 Policy formulation, defined as the process of considering alternative policy options and deciding to implement one or several of them.

􀂮 Policy implementation, defined as the process of carrying out the policy (or policies) decided on during the formulation stage.

Within policy formulation, we can further distinguish between policy analysis and policy making. Policy analysis is the process of investigating issues and options, and of drawing up and comparing different proposals. Policy making, on the other hand, is the act of deciding which objectives should be met and selecting the instruments by which to do so.

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Corresponding to these processes are the people who carry them out, namely:

􀂮

Policy formulators: policy analysts and policy makers

􀂮

Policy implementers.

These are not necessarily different people. The same person may analyze policy, make it and then implement it. However, in doing so, he or she is carrying out distinct roles. Awareness of these roles, and an ability to separate them, are important for everyone involved in policy work.

The purpose of policy is to affect the real world. To do this, political realities must be fully taken into account. While imagination - and even a degree of daring - may be vital ingredients at the policy formulation stage, there is no point in proposing a policy which is bound to be rejected for political reasons. Policy proposals will not be accepted - and policies will not be effective - unless they have the support of prominent politicians and interest groups. Policy analysts must understand and take into account the concerns of politicians if viable policies are to be formulated. Politics and politicians are, in fact, central to policy issues and should not be viewed as irritating side-issues, to be ignored whenever possible.

Priorities in policy formulation

The formulation of good policy is not a matter of random chance, but a skill which can be learned. It is also a skill which requires limited resources to practice. Three main types of limited resources are required:

1.

The ability and time of policy analysts to identify issues and options with an understanding of their probable consequences;

2.

The ability, attention and time of policy makers who must understand the issues involved if they are to make sound decisions;

3.

Other political and bureaucratic resources to bring about necessary legislation and political or financial support for a policy decision or its effective implementation,

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5.0 The role of the policy analyst

The tasks of policy analysis can be described as follows:

􀂮

To identify and priorities policy issues

􀂮

To clarify government policy objectives relevant to sector

􀂮

To identify current policies and their consequences

􀂮

To identify alternative viable policy instruments, their probable direct and indirect consequences and the risk that these may not materialize

􀂮

To develop criteria and indicators to assess progress towards objectives

􀂮

To design viable policy packages, with associated strategies to obtain political support and to ensure organizational effectiveness

􀂮

To advocate these viable policy packages in a clear, brief and persuasive way.

In essence, the task of the policy analyst is to help the policy maker take difficult decisions in areas that are often contentious. Senior policy makers must understand the issues involved if they are to make sound decisions. The policy analyst must be able to create and convey that understanding quickly and clearly.

Policy analysis, on the other hand, includes this parallel set of characteristics:

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An inventory or search phase, limited in scope and directed at a particular issue.

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A constrained search for alternatives, which are then all usually evaluated and displayed to the client.

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The preparation of memoranda, issue papers, policy papers, or draft legislation.

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A particular client, be it a chief executive, an elected official, a public interest group, a neighborhood, or a bank, likely to have a particular perspective on the problem.

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An issue or problem orientation, described alternatively as a reactive posture.

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A time horizon often compromised by terms of elected officials and uncertainty.

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A political approach to getting things accomplished.

When analyzing government policy, it is often helpful to distinguish between two elements which are essential parts of any policy. These elements are:

1.

Policy objectives. These are the "ends" of a policy and reflect the overall purpose or long-term aims; they are what the policy is intended to achieve

2.

Policy instruments. These are the "means" of a policy, the actions used to carry it out and the methods by which its objectives are achieved

The distinction is useful because the same objective can often be served by several alternative instruments. It is only by distinguishing between objectives and instruments that one can begin to assess the relative efficiency of different instruments. Conversely, a single policy instrument may affect several policy objectives.

For example, an instrument used to raise dairy prices will normally affect the welfare of producers and consumers as well as the level of milk production.

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6.0 What does Empirical Methods mean?

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1989), empiric is derived from the ancient Greek for experience, empirical data is information that is derived from the trials and errors of experience. In this way, the empirical method is similar to the experimental method. However, an essential difference is that in an experiment the different "trials" are strictly manipulated so that an inference can be made as to causation of the observed change that results. This contrasts with the empirical method of aggregating naturally occurring data.

Adding further confusion is another connotation of empiric. Strict empiricists are those who derive their rules of practice entirely from experience, to the exclusion of philosophical theory.

The Oxford English Dictionary further states that an empiric is "one who, either in medicine or in other branches of science, relies solely upon observation and experiment" [emphasis added]. In this case, an empiricist can be someone who conducts an experiment but without using a hypothesis to guide the process, i.e., strictly by the trial-and-error method. This is counter to one of the main tenets of the scientific method, that of the hypothetic-deductive method, where the manipulation of the variable in an experiment is dictated by the hypothesis being tested.

The empirical method is generally characterized by the collection of a large amount of data before much speculation as to their significance, or without much idea of what to expect, and is to be contrasted with more theoretical methods in which the collection of empirical data is guided largely by preliminary theoretical exploration of what to expect. The empirical method is necessary in entering hitherto completely unexplored fields, and becomes less purely empirical as the acquired mastery of the field increases. Successful use of an exclusively empirical method demands a higher degree of intuitive ability in the practitioner

(McGraw-Hill)

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7.0 How Empirical Method improve the Policy Making

In the policy analyzing part, the empirical method is giving its major inputs. The policy analyst are using various empirical methods for the analyzing part of the policy which is giving more statistical and also the practical analyzing report which Is very clearly understandable and also could be able to predict the things based on the empirical analysis techniques

In the analyzing part of the policy making the policy analyst collect vast set of relevant data and information of the particular policy issue Once the evidence is given properly in a methodological way the policy making part will be easy process

Because of the empirical method and absorption it in the poly analyzing will be a definite advantage and also enhance policy making process with the correct evidence of the relevant issue. Solution can be made according to the empirical result which will more practical and easy most of the time

There are number of techniques used by the policy analyst to make the maximum better out put used empirical methodologies which is concerning Time, Cost, decision support techniques and other well know function of the statistical analyzing methods many of the economical policy making process based on the empirical methods.

There are evidence can be stated for evidence based policy makings with the use of empirical methods

Good decision making is based on good data. Sample survey and experimental design techniques are aid in getting good data. Empirical methods, primarily statistical tools, are used in designing data capture, obtaining useful information from data, and presenting results convincingly to various audiences. Statistical tools include probability modeling and regression analysis. Statistical software enables empirical methods to be applied.

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8.0 Evidence

Some of the examples are stated below which are collected from the web

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TRANSPORT 2010: THE TEN YEAR TRANSPORT PLAN

BACKGROUND

In December 1999 DTLR began work to prepare a 10 Year Plan for Transport. The result, Transport 2010, was published in July 2000. This is a long term investment plan to transform Britain's transport systems, and to tackle the associated problems of congestion and pollution. In the past, a strategic approach to transport has been hampered by 'stop-start' funding associated with traditional Public Expenditure rounds.

APPROACH

DTLR took a long term look at the investment needs of the transport system, and linked it to the outcomes that the Government wished to achieve in policy terms. The Plan was drawn up as part of the Spending Review process (which looks at public spending over the coming three years) but looked further ahead over a 10 year period, and also took account of the potential contribution of the private sector given its importance in providing both infrastructure and services. A dedicated Task Force was set up to manage the process. The Plan built on an earlier comprehensive statement of policy set out in the Integrated Transport White Paper. Economic models were used to link public and private investment and other transport policy measures to outcomes over a 10 year period. The result was a programme of investment linked to firm Public Service Agreement (PSA) targets. The task of forecasting and predicting all the key relationships over a ten year period was a demanding task with uncertainty increasing towards the end of the period. The Plan had to make assumptions about the outputs that would flow from the proposed investment recognising that decisions would be taken by a number of different bodies following processes established by the White Paper to ensure an integrated approach. The Plan also looked at the impact of three illustrative scenarios for the costs of motoring over the 10 year period. Accompanying the publication of the Plan was The Background Analysis, a document setting out the assumptions and analysis underlying the Plan. There is an on-going commitment to maintain, monitor and review the Plan, and to take forward work to improve key aspects. The Commission for Integrated Transport has been asked to provide advice as part of the review process. To inform the review the Department's main transport model is being revised and expanded into a fully multi-modal model. This draws on the advice of outside consultants and on discussions with a wide range of outside experts and stakeholders.

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B E N E F I T S

The Plan provides a firmer foundation for investment in transport, linked to outcomes in 2010, and was successful in securing £180 billion of private and public investment over the ten year period. It provides the basis for monitoring, reviewing and evaluating progress against DTLR's PSA targets.

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DEFRA: WASTE AND RESOURCES ACTION PROGRAMME

BACKGROUND

UK Government is committed to significantly reducing the quantities of waste going to landfill, and increasing recycling. Delivering a sustainable increase in recycling without large and long-term government subsidy will rely on strong markets for recycled materials. However, many existing markets for recycled materials are already running at full capacity, and others are new, fragile or non-existent.

APPROACH

DEFRA has established Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP). This is a new, independent body, sponsored by government, to promote the development of markets for recycled materials. It is not an agency, nor a non-Departmental Public Body (NDPB), but a private company, flexible enough to operate in the private sector, but with checks and balances in place to ensure that the Government receives value for money from its sponsorship. It was recognized that the Government did not have the appropriate skills and understanding of working in a business environment to undertake the task itself. Also, as an independent company, WRAP will be well placed to attract private sector funding, and to use that funding to test out innovative financial mechanisms.

B E N E F I T S

Such an innovative and pioneering approach to a problem has meant that there was not a great deal of experience to draw on. However, this conversely meant that DEFRA had the freedom to work from a blank sheet, and the lack of established procedures meant that officials were able to operate more quickly and flexibly.

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DTI: RADIO SPECTRUM

BACKGROUND

Radio spectrum is the raw material on which mobile telephones, broadcasting and a bewilderingly wide range of other applications depend. It is a finite national resource with high economic value. However, until 1998, sitting tenants had no incentive to use more efficient and modern technology or to make way for entirely new users. This situation was transformed by the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1998.

APPROACH

In the interests of promoting more efficient use of the radio spectrum, a basic tenet of government administration was set aside - that the price of a license should reflect the cost of administering it. The Government was keen to adopt an approach that would unlock the economic value of the radio spectrum for the UK. It was also keen to allow companies to gain access to the spectrum they needed to exploit new technology and bring innovative services to UK businesses and citizens. To achieve these objectives, it was decided that licenses for the new 'Third Generation' mobile telephone services would be auctioned. The UK was the first country in the world to auction 3G licenses and the outcome 'astonished the telecommunications and financial sectors around the world'. The project was taken forward by a team of about 15 civil servants. Creativity was encouraged amongst the team '..and the standing agreement in the team was that in pursuing the published objectives, nothing was inherently unthinkable'. The team was supported by extensive and expensive external advice from bankers, lawyers, auction designers and technologists. The results more than justified this investment. An additional strength of the approach was the highly consultative process that was adopted, involving an inter-departmental steering group bringing together all the Whitehall interests. In addition, consultative machinery involving all the key industrial stakeholders was established to ensure transparency.

B E N E F I T S

The benefits of this approach were considerable and far-reaching. The first such auction of five licenses of spectrum to run next generation ('3G') mobile phone networks led to licenses being assigned to the operators who valued them most and would generate the greatest economic and consumer benefits. The licensees include a completely new entrant to the UK mobile telecommunications market, which will be good for competition and consumers. Furthermore, because the five licensees are highly motivated to build networks and grab market share, 'UK businesses and consumers

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will have advanced services here before most other countries. This would not have been achieved by a conventional approach'. Finally, the auction raised £22.5 billion for the Exchequer, although revenue was by no means the primary consideration. The proceeds have been used to reduce the National Debt and so will bring economic benefits long into the future.

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The construction process and building use not only consume the most energy of all sectors in the UK and create the most CO2 emissions, they also create the most waste, use most non-energy related resources, and are responsible for the most pollution.

Climate Change

Building use in the UK contributes about 50% of the UK's CO2 emissions and construction contributes about another 7%. The AECB have shown that the Government figures on energy performance of houses grossly underestimate the CO2 gains that could be made by building energy efficient buildings. The main base performance criteria for energy efficient buildings all concern the thermal performance of the building shell where most of the CO2 gains can be most easily made.

The fact is that if we are serious about climate change then we need to stop playing games with technologies which do not deliver real CO2 savings. The real challenge in this area is the refurbishment of existing buildings. However it would help for a start, if we also produced really energy efficient new buildings.

Waste

According to DEFRA the waste going to landfill from the construction industry in 2004 was about 100 million tonnes. This is more than 3 times the amount of domestic waste collection (28 million tonnes). It has gone up from about 70 million tonnes in 2000. In many situations this is equivalent to one house being buried in the ground for every 3 built. This is an important consideration when the embodied energy of a building is being calculated. Usually such calculations do not take into account an extra 25% energy for waste. This is obviously more serious for higher embodied energy products than low embodied energy products.

There are increasing regulations about waste disposal from construction and many products, even common products like gypsum plasterboard and mineral wool insulation are now labelled as hazardous and require special disposal. In addition there are many projects to find new uses for waste construction materials (through Government bodies such as WRAP). However here, as with waste disposal, the less processed a material is, and the less hazardous, the easier re-use, recycling or healthy disposal (for example through composting) will be.

Resource Use

The construction industry is the major consumer of resources of all industries in the UK. It accounts for 90% of all non-fuel mineral use, and a large proportion of timber use. Many of the materials used in the UK now come from abroad, sometimes from countries where with less environmental control or labour justice.

As BioRegional and the World Wide Fund for Nature have shown in their One Planet Living material , if everyone in the world consumed resources at the same rate as we do in the UK it would take the equivalent of 3 planets now to sustain this consumption. As a global community we exceeded sustainable levels of consumption in the mid 1980s, so both from the point of view of human survival and of justice and equity, it is not feasible or desirable to continue at current levels of consumption. It is not possible for the way of consumption in the UK to be spread throughout the globe, and as a matter of urgency we and other western nations need to radically reduce our consumption of resources.

A distinction needs to be made between sustainable and non- sustainable resources. Sustainable can be divided into renewable resources (those which can be renewed - particularly those that are grown in short time cycles such as food and certain kinds of timber) and plentiful resources (such as clay, chalk, and sand). In addition materials which can be indefinitely re-used (or recycled easily) are to some extent sustainable. Non-sustainable resources are those of which there is a known limited supply, and which cannot be replaced or easily reused or recycled with minimal extra energy input. These non-sustainable resources therefore include many minerals, oil and some timber (which is very slow growing or where the extraction causes the extinction of the habitat and therefore of the resource) at our current levels and forms of use. In the UK the construction industry is the main consumer of non-renewable resources, as well as a huge consumer of renewable resources, and this means it must bear greatest responsibility for addressing this situation, and addressing it quickly.

Habitat Destruction

While the three greatest and most imminent threats to the survival of our civilisation are global warming, peak oil (the growing energy gap between supply and demand) and resource depletion, habitat destruction can have a more immediate and disastrous effect on certain localised areas and species. Sometimes these can also have a global impact (for example the impact of the deforestation of the Amazon rain forests).

It is hard to keep track of the number of species made extinct every year, and of the further erosion of biodiverse and rare habitats. It is equally hard to relate this destruction to construction use in the UK. However the fact that the construction industry is such a huge consumer of materials, particularly of imported chemicals, minerals, metals and organic materials such as timber, inevitably means it has a huge impact and obviously has the greatest impact of any sector in the UK, on habitat erosion and destruction globally.

Many essential materials are now in short supply. These include materials such as copper, which is largely mined in South America where whole mountains have been taken down and landscapes altered in the search for ever more rare resources. They include materials like Titanium Ore which is used for the production of Titanium Dioxide, which is one of the main ingredients of paint among other things. This is often mined in rare habitats such as Madagascar with consequential and inevitable dangers to the ecology .

Of course it is possible to mine and extract materials from habitats without destroying them. However there will always be consequences to this benign form of extraction in terms of cost, speed and quantity. It is therefore imperative that we radically reduce our demand on such materials in order to allow this process to happen benignly. At present the whole world is heading in the opposite direction, and we will lose huge areas of unique habitat forever in the coming years unless we change the way we consume such materials. This is particularly as regards how we build. It means using less of these materials by building more simply, with more local and plentiful (ie sustainable and renewable) materials and with less waste.

Pollution

Finally the environmental impact of construction is also felt in terms of pollution. This is not in the extraction but in the processing of materials for construction. And again, not surprisingly, the construction industry has the biggest effect of all sector because of the quantity of materials used in construction

In the past there was a simple general equation between the amount of pollution and the amount of energy in a process. On the whole the more energy required, and the more processes, the more waste and the more pollution was generated. Processes such as the processing of plastics for PVC, PU and PI, the manufacture of Titanium Dioxide, the galvanising of metals were all very polluting. Much of this is now controlled by legislation and pollution of air, land and sea within the European Union and many Western Nations is now reducing. However we have also exported a lot of our pollution in the outsourcing of our manufacturing to non- western nations such as China, India, and areas of South East Asia and South America. Products may be assembled in the West, but most of the basic materials and components are often processed elsewhere. The loss of control of manufacturing processes therefore has a considerable environmental impact.

As with habitat destruction, it is difficult to track this or control it. Assessments like BREEAM attempt to assess this effect but there is a huge lack of data and resource for doing it across all product lines. What we can do is reduce high energy material use, and use local and low energy materials as much as possible. Until there is proper global control of polluting processes or a clear legislation/ incentives in the UK along with proper assessment lifecycle assessment of all materials and manufacturers, we will have to stick to what we are sure of, and also what is inherently non-polluting.