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Who invented ice cream first?
Ice cream's history goes way back, being credited to the Chinese in 3000 BC, though the variation used today was invented in Italy during the 17th century. However, the ice cream as the world knows it today wouldn't be complete without the ice cream cone, which wouldn't come until much later from the 1904 World's Fair in Saint Louis, though they were mentioned in French cookbooks in 1825.
When was icecream made?
HistoryPrecursors of ice creamFile:Bakdash2.JPGFile:Bakdash2.JPGAn ice-cream store in Damascus, SyriaIn the Persian_Empire, people would pour grape juice concentrate over snow - in a bowl - and eat this as a treat. In particular this was consumed when the weather was hot. Either snow would be saved in the cool-keeping underground chambers known as "yakhchal" or taken from fresh snow that may still have remained at the top of the mountains by the summer capital - Hagmatana, Ecbatanaor Hamedanof today. In 400 BC, the Persians went further and invented a special chilled food, made of Rose_waterand Vermicelliwhich was served to royalty during summers.Answers.comThe ice was mixed with Saffron, fruits, and various other flavours.Ancient civilizations have served ice for cold foods for thousands of years. The BBC reports that a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC.Answers.comThe Roman_EmperorNero(37-68) had ice brought from the mountains and combined with fruit toppings. These were some early chilled delicacies.Answers.comArabswere the first to use milk as a major ingredient in its production, sweeten the ice cream with sugar rather than Juice, as well as perfect ways for its commercial production. As early as the 10th century, ice cream was widespread amongst many of the Arab world's major cities, such as Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo. Their version of ice cream was produced from milk or cream and often some yoghurt similar to Ancient_Greekrecipes, flavoured with rosewater as well as dried fruits and nuts. It is believed that this was based on older Ancient_Arabia, Mesopotamian, Ancient_Greeksor Ancient_Romanrecipes, which were probably the first and precursors to Persian Faloodeh.In 62 AD, the Roman emperor Nero sent slaves to the Apennine_mountainsto collect snow to be flavoured with honey and nuts.Answers.comMaguelonne Toussaint-Samat asserts in her History of Food, "the Chinese may be credited with inventing a device to make sorbets and ice cream. They poured a mixture of snow and Potassium_nitrateover the exteriors of containers filled with syrup, for, in the same way as salt raises the boiling-point of water, it lowers the freezing-point to below zero."Answers.comAnswers.com(Toussaint does not provide historical documentation for this.) Some distorted accounts claim that in the age of Emperor_Yingzong_of_Song, Song_Dynasty_(960-1279) of China, a poem named "è© å†°é…ª" (literally Ode to the ice cheese) was written by the poet Yang_Wanli. Actually, this poem was named "è© é…¥" (literally Ode to the pastry, é…¥ is a kind of food like pastry in the western world) and has nothing to do with ice cream.Answers.comIt has also been claimed that, in the Yuan_Dynasty, Kublai_Khanenjoyed ice cream and kept it a royal secret until Marco_Polovisited China and took the technique of making ice cream to Italy.File:Green_tea_ice_cream.JPGFile:Green_tea_ice_cream.JPGJapanese Green_teaice cream with Red_bean_pastesauceIn the sixteenth century, the List_of_Mughal_emperorsused relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu_Kushto Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets.Answers.comWhen Italian duchess Catherine_de'_Medicimarried the duc d'Orléans in 1533, she is said to have brought with her Italian chefs who had recipes for flavoured ices or sorbets, and introduced them in France.Answers.comOne hundred years later, Charles_I_of_Englandwas supposedly so impressed by the "frozen snow", he offered his own ice cream maker a lifetime Pensionin return for keeping the formula secret, so ice cream could be a Royal_Prerogative.Answers.comThere is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century.The first recipe for flavoured ices in French appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery's Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature.Answers.comRecipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's Lo Scalco alla Moderna (The Modern Steward).Answers.comRecipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialot's Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow.Answers.comTrue ice creamIce cream recipes first appear in 18th century England and America. A recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs._Mary_Eales's_Receiptsin London1718.Answers.comTo ice CREAM. Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten'd, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; than take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou'd freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten'd; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream.The earliest reference to ice cream given by the Oxford_English_Dictionaryis from 1744, reprinted in a magazine in 1877. 1744 in Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. & Biogr. (1877) I. 126 Among the rarities..was some fine ice cream, which, with the strawberries and milk, eat most deliciously.Answers.comThe 1751 edition of Art_of_Cookeryby Hannah_Glassefeatures a recipe for ice cream. OED gives her recipe: H. GLASSE Art of Cookery (ed. 4) 333 (heading) To make Ice Cream..set it [sc. the cream] into the larger Bason. Fill it with Ice, and a Handful of Salt.Answers.com1768 saw the publication of L'Art de Bien Faire les Glaces d'Office by M. Emy, a cookbook devoted entirely to recipes for flavoured ices and ice cream.Answers.comIce cream was introduced to the United States by Quakercolonists who brought their ice cream recipes with them. Confectioners sold ice cream at their shops in New York and other cities during the colonial era. Ben_Franklin, George_Washington, and Thomas_Jeffersonwere known to have regularly eaten and served ice cream. First_Lady_of_the_United_StatesDolley_Madisonis also closely associated with the early history of ice cream in the United States. One respected history of ice cream states that, as the wife of U.S. President James_Madison, she served ice cream at her husband's Inaugural Ball in 1813.Around 1832, Augustus_Jackson, an African American confectioner, not only created multiple ice cream recipes, but he also invented a superior technique to manufacture ice cream.Answers.comIn 1843, Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia was issued the first U.S. patent for a small-scale handcranked ice cream freezer. The invention of the Ice_cream_sodagave Americans a new treat, adding to ice cream's popularity. This cold treat was probably invented by Robert Green in 1874, although there is no conclusive evidence to prove his claim.File:Icecreamsundaesinosaka.jpgFile:Icecreamsundaesinosaka.jpgIce cream sundaes with fruit, nuts, and a waferThe Sundaeoriginated in the late 19th century. Several men claimed to have created the first sundae, but there is no conclusive evidence to back up any of their stories. Some sources say that the sundae was invented to circumvent Blue_law, which forbade serving sodas on Sunday. Towns claiming to be the birthplace of the sundae include Buffalo, New York; Two Rivers, Wisconsin; Ithaca, New York; and Evanston, Illinois. Both the Ice_cream_coneand Banana_splitbecame popular in the early 20th century. Several food vendors claimed to have invented the ice cream cone at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, MO.Answers.comEuropeans were eating cones long before 1904.Answers.comAnswers.comIn the UK, ice cream remained an expensive and rare treat, until large quantities of ice began to be imported from Norwayand the US in the mid Victorian_era. A Swiss-Italian businessman, Carlo_Gatti, opened the first ice cream stall outside Charing_Crossstation in 1851, selling scoops of ice cream in shells for one penny.Answers.comFile:GFile:GGeorge and Davis' Ice Cream Cafe on Little_Clarendon_Street, Oxford.The history of ice cream in the 20th century is one of great change and increases in availability and popularity. In the United States in the early 20th century, the Ice_cream_sodawas a popular treat at the Soda_shop, the Soda_fountain, and the Ice_cream_parlor. During Prohibition_in_the_United_States, the soda fountain to some extent replaced the outlawed alcohol establishments such as Bar_(establishment) and Bar_(establishment).Ice cream became popular throughout the world in the second half of the 20th century after cheap Refrigerationbecame common. There was an explosion of ice cream stores and of flavours and types. Vendors often competed on the basis of variety. Howard_Johnson'srestaurants advertised "a world of 28 flavours." Baskin-Robbinsmade its 31 flavours ("one for every day of the month") the cornerstone of its Marketing_strategy. The company now boasts that it has developed over 1000 varieties.One important development in the 20th century was the introduction of Soft_serve. A chemical research team in United_Kingdom(of which a young Margaret_Thatcherwas a member)Answers.comAnswers.comdiscovered a method of doubling the amount of air in ice cream, which allowed manufacturers to use less of the actual ingredients, thereby reducing costs. It made possible the soft ice cream machine in which a cone is filled beneath a Tap_(valve) on order. In the United States, Dairy_Queen, Carvel_(restaurant), and Tastee-Freezpioneered in establishing chains of soft-serve ice cream outlets.Technological innovations such as these have introduced various Food_additiveinto ice cream, notably the Stabilizer_(chemistry) Gluten,Answers.comto which some people have an Gluten_sensitivity. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.Answers.comThe 1980s saw a return of the older, thicker ice creams being sold as "premium" and "superpremium" varieties under brands such as Ben_and Häagen-Dazs.ProductionFile:Cherryicecream(cropped).jpgFile:Cherryicecream(cropped).jpgCherry ice-creamBefore the development of modern Refrigeration, ice cream was a luxury reserved for special occasions. Making it was quite laborious; ice was cut from lakes and ponds during the winter and stored in holes in the ground, or in wood-frame or brick Icehouse_(building), insulated by straw. Many farmers and plantation owners, including President_of_the_United_StatesGeorge_Washingtonand Thomas_Jefferson, cut and stored ice in the winter for use in the summer. Frederic_Tudorof Boston turned ice harvesting and shipping into a big business, cutting ice in New England and shipping it around the world.Ice cream was made by hand in a large bowl placed inside a tub filled with ice and salt. This was called the pot-freezer method. French confectioners refined the pot-freezer method, making ice cream in a sorbetière (a covered pail with a handle attached to the lid). In the pot-freezer method, the temperature of the ingredients is reduced by the mixture of crushed ice and salt. The salt water is cooled by the ice, and the action of the salt on the ice causes it to (partially) melt, absorbing Latent_heatand bringing the mixture below the Freezing_pointof pure water. The immersed container can also make better thermal contact with the salty water and ice mixture than it could with ice alone.The hand-cranked churn, which also uses ice and salt for cooling, replaced the pot-freezer method. The exact origin of the hand-cranked freezer is unknown, but the first U.S. patent for one was #3254 issued to Nancy Johnson on September 9, 1843. The hand-cranked churn produced smoother ice cream than the pot freezer and did it quicker. Many inventors patented improvements on Johnson's design.In Europe and early America, ice cream was made and sold by small businesses, mostly confectioners and caterers. Jacob Fussell of Baltimore, Maryland was the first to manufacture ice cream on a large scale. Fussell bought fresh dairy products from farmers in York County, Pennsylvania, and sold them in Baltimore. An unstable demand for his dairy products often left him with a surplus of cream, which he made into ice cream. He built his first ice-cream factory in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania, in 1851. Two years later, he moved his factory to Baltimore. Later, he opened factories in several other cities and taught the business to others, who operated their own plants. Mass production reduced the cost of ice cream and added to its popularity.The development of industrial refrigeration by German engineer Carl_von_Lindeduring the 1870s eliminated the need to cut and store natural ice and when the continuous-process freezer was perfected in 1926, it allowed commercial mass production of ice cream and the birth of the modern ice cream industry.The most common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an Ice_cream_maker, in modern times generally an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture while cooled inside a household freezer, or using a solution of pre-frozen salt and water, which gradually melts while the ice cream freezes. Some more expensive models have an inbuilt freezing element. A newer method of making home-made ice cream is to add Liquid_nitrogento the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula. Some ice cream recipes call for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture.Commercial deliveryFile:Indonesia_bike34.JPGFile:Indonesia_bike34.JPGA bicycle-based ice cream vendor in IndonesiaIce cream can be Mass_productionand thus is widely available in developed parts of the world. Ice cream can be purchased in large Carton(vats and Squround) from supermarkets and Grocery_store, in smaller quantities from ice cream shops, Convenience_store, and Milk_bar, and in individual servings from small carts or vans at public events. In Turkey and Australia, ice cream is sometimes sold to beach-goers from small powerboats equipped with chest freezers. Some ice cream distributors sell ice cream products from traveling refrigerated vans or carts (commonly referred to in the US as "Ice_cream_van"), sometimes equipped with speakers playing children's music. Traditionally, ice cream vans in the United Kingdom make a Musical_boxnoise rather than actual music.DietaryFile:Black_sesame_soft_ice_cream.jpgFile:Black_sesame_soft_ice_cream.jpgBlack sesame soft ice-cream, JapanIce cream may have the following composition:Answers.comgreater than 10% milkfat and usually between 10% and as high as 16% fat in some premium ice creams9 to 12% milk solids-not-fat: this component, also known as the serum solids, contains the proteins (caseins and whey proteins) and carbohydrates (lactose) found in milk12 to 16% sweeteners: usually a combination of sucrose and glucose-based Corn_syrupsweeteners0.2 to 0.5% stabilisers and emulsifiers55% to 64% water which comes from the milk or other ingredients.These compositions are percentage by weight. Since ice cream can contain as much as half air by volume, these numbers may be reduced by as much as half if cited by volume. In terms of dietary considerations, the percentages by weight are more relevant. Even the low fat products have high caloric content: Ben and Jerry's No Fat Vanilla Fudge contains 150 calories per half cup due to its high sugar content.Answers.comIce cream around the worldMain article: Ice_cream_around_the_worldIce cream coneMain article: Ice_cream_coneFile:Helados.jpgFile:Helados.jpgMrs Marshall's Cookery Book, published in 1888, endorsed serving ice cream in cones,Answers.combut the idea definitely predated that. Agnes_Marshallwas a celebrated Food_writingof her day and helped to popularise ice cream. She patented and manufactured an ice cream maker and was the first person to suggest using liquefied gases to freeze ice cream after seeing a demonstration at the Royal_Institution.Reliable evidence proves that ice cream cones were served in the 19th century, and their popularity increased greatly during the Louisiana_Purchase_Expositionin 1904. According to legend, at the World's Fair an ice cream seller had run out of the cardboard dishes used to put ice cream scoops in, so they could not sell any more produce. Next door to the ice cream booth was a SyriaWafflebooth, unsuccessful due to intense heat; the waffle maker offered to make cones by rolling up his waffles and the new product sold well, and was widely copied by other vendors.Answers.comAnswers.comOther frozen dessertsThe following is a partial list of ice cream-like frozen desserts and snacks:File:RaspberrySherbet.jpgFile:RaspberrySherbet.jpgRaspberry Sorbet.Ais_kacang: a dessert in Malaysiaand Singaporemade from shaved ice, syrup, and boiled red bean and topped with evaporated milk. Sometimes, other small ingredients like raspberries and durians are added in too.Dondurma: Turkish ice cream, made of Salepand Mastic_(plant_resin) ResinFrozen_custard: at least 10% milk fat and at least 1.4% Egg_yolkand much less air beaten into it, similar to Gelato, fairly rare. Known in Italy as Semifreddo.Frozen_yogurt: a low fat or fat free alternative made with yogurtGelato: an Italian frozen dessert having a lower milk fat content than ice cream.Halo-halo: a popular Philippine_cuisinedessert that is a mixture of shaved ice and milk to which are added various boiled sweet beans and fruits, and served cold in a tall glass or bowl.Ice_milk: less than 10% milk fat and lower sweetening content, once marketed as "ice milk" but now sold as low-fat ice cream in the United States.Ice_pop(or lolly): frozen fruit puree, fruit juice, or flavoured sugar water on a stick or in a flexible plastic sleeve.Kulfi: Believed to have been introduced to South_Asiaby the Mughal_Empireconquest in the 16th century; its origins trace back to the cold snacks and desserts of Araband Mediterranean_Basincultures.Answers.comMellorine: non-dairy, with vegetable fat substituted for milk fathttp://wiki.answers.com/w/index.php?title=Parevine&action=edit&redlink=1: Koshernon-dairy frozen dessert established in 1969 in New YorkAnswers.comSorbet: 1-2% milk fat and sweeter than ice cream.Sorbet: fruit puree with no Dairy_productSnow_cone, made from balls of crushed ice topped with sweet syrup served in a paper cone, are consumed in many parts of the world. The most common places to find snow cones in the United States are at Amusement_park.Maple Toffee: A popular springtime treat in Maple-growingareas is maple Toffee, where Maple_syrupboiled to a concentrated state is poured over fresh snow congealing in a toffee-like mass, and then eaten from a wooden stick used to pick it up from the snow.Using liquid nitrogenFile:Dippin'_Dots_Rainbow_Flavored_Ice.jpgFile:Dippin'_Dots_Rainbow_Flavored_Ice.jpgDippin'_DotsFlavored Ice CreamUsing Liquid_nitrogento freeze ice cream is an old idea and has been used for many years to harden ice cream. The use of liquid nitrogen in the primary freezing of ice cream, that is to effect the transition from the liquid to the frozen state without the use of a conventional ice cream freezer, has only recently started to see commercialization. Some commercial innovations have been documented in the National Cryogenic Society Magazine "Cold Facts".Answers.comThe most noted brands are Dippin'_Dots,Answers.comBlue Sky Creamery,Answers.comProject Creamery,Answers.comand Sub Zero Cryo Creamery.Answers.comThe preparation results in a column of white condensed Water_vaporcloud, reminiscent of popular depictions of Witchcraft' cauldrons. The ice cream, dangerous to eat while still "steaming," is allowed to rest until the liquid nitrogen is completely vaporised. Sometimes ice cream is frozen to the sides of the container, and must be allowed to thaw.Making ice cream with liquid nitrogen has advantages over conventional freezing. Due to the rapid freezing, the Crystalgrains are smaller, giving the ice cream a creamier texture, and allowing one to get the same texture by using less milkfat. Such Ice_crystalswill grow very quickly via the processes of recrystallization thus obviating the original benefits unless steps are taken to inhibit
Why do Iran and Israel disagree?
Israel (Military)Israel has the highest ratio of defense spending to GDP and as a percentage of the budget of all developed countries. The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Minister of Defense. The IDF consist of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations-chiefly the Haganah-that preceded the establishment of the state. The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak. The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.Most Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Men serve three years and women two to three years. Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years. An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks. As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 445,000 reservists.The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. Since 1967, the United States has been a particularly notable foreign contributor of military aid to Israel: the US is expected to provide the country with $3.15 billion per year from 2013-2018. The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites. The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites. Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24% of its GDP on defense. Today, that figure has dropped to 7.3%.Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons as well as chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction. Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities. Since the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room impermeable to chemical and biological substances.The IDF has also been deployed on humanitarian missions, usually involving rescue workers and medical personnel, along with relief workers and body identifiers from ZAKA and the Israel Police. After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, a rescue team was dispatched to Haiti, which consisted of 40 doctors, 20 nurses and rescue workers, and two rescue planes loaded with medical equipment and a field hospital with X-ray equipment, intensive care units, and operating rooms. Other recent recipients of aid include Japan (a medical team after the 2011 tsunami), Congo 2008, Sri Lanka 2005 (tsunami), India and El Salvador 2001 (earthquakes), Ethiopia 2000, Turkey 1998 (earthquake), Kosovo 1999 (refugees) and Rwanda 1994 (refugees).Israel is consistently rated very low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 145th out of 153 nations for peacefulness in 2011.Israel (Economy)Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. In 2010, it joined the OECD. The country is ranked 3rd in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report. It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States)and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.In 2010, Israel ranked 17th among of the world's most economically developed nations, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook. The Israeli economy was ranked first as the world's most durable economy in the face of crises, and was also ranked first in the rate of research and development center investments.The Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, up from the 8th place in 2009. Israel was also ranked as the worldwide leader in its supply of skilled manpower. The Bank of Israel holds $78 billion of foreign-exchange reserves.Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling $47.8 billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment. Leading exports include electronics, software, computerized systems, communications technology, medical equipment, pharmaceuticals, fruits, chemicals, military technology, and cut diamonds; in 2006, Israeli exports reached $42.86 billion, and by 2010 they had reached $80.5 billion a year.Israel is a leading country in the development of solar energy. Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[ and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley. According to the OECD, Israel is also ranked 1st in the world in expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP. Intel and Microsoft built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U.S. billionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4 billion. Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which now account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a net lender in terms of net external debt (the total value of assets vs. liabilities in debt instruments owed abroad), which as of 2011 stood at a surplus of US$58.7 billion.Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for 5 a days 'week'), or Friday (for 6 a days 'week'). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day", usually lasting till 14:00 in the winter, or 16:00 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days, and/or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day .Israel ( Science and Technology)Israel's eight public universities are subsidized by the state. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's oldest university, houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects. The Hebrew University is consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by the prestigious ARWU academic ranking. Other major universities in the country include the Technion, the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University (TAU), Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, The Open University and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Israel's seven research universities (excluding the Open University) are consistently ranked among top 500 in the world. Israel has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2002 and publishes among the most scientific papers per capita of any country in the world.Israel has embraced solar energy, its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology and its solar companies work on projects around the world. Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world. According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating. The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top. Around it is a flat sandy area, with desert in the background. It's a sunny day, with a few white clouds in the blue skies.The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center.Israel's most recent Nobel laureate: Dan Shechtman won the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.Israel is one of the world's technological leaders in water technology. In 2011, its water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. The ongoing shortage of water in the country has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernisation, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plant, the largest in the world, was voted 'Desalination Plant of the Year' in the Global Water Awards in 2006. Israel hosts an annual Water Technology Exhibition and Conference (WaTec) that attracts thousands of people from across the world. By the end of 2013, 85 percent of the country's water consumption will be from reverse osmosis. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water in the coming years.Israel has led the world in stem-cell research papers per capita since 2000. In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 top world universities in mathematics (Hebrew University, TAU and Technion), physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science), chemistry (Technion and Weizmann Institute of Science), computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, TAU and BIU) and economics (Hebrew University and TAU).Israel has a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of recharging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It is thought that this will lower Israel's oil dependency and lower the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries. The Israeli model is being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia.In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency. Since 1988 Israel Aerospace Industries have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites. Most were launched to orbit from Israeli air force base "Palmachim" by the Shavit space launch vehicle. Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.Iran (Military)Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution. Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the Western world due to suspicions that Iran could divert the civilian nuclear technology to a weapons program. This has led the UN Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene. The US Director of National Intelligence said in February 2009 that Iran would not realistically be able to a get a nuclear weapon until 2013, if it chose to develop one.One of Iran's three SSK Kilo class submarinesThe Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totaling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totaling around 900,000 trained troops. Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world. In 2007, Iran's military spending represented 2.6% of the GDP or $102 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations. Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence.Since the Iranian Revolution, to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, military vessels, guided missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters and fighter planes. In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 and Sajjil missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile, it is a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically. Iran has allowed the Taliban to open an office, in late May 2012, in the eastern Iranian city of Zahedan to coordinate with the Taliban against the US, which is seen as a bigger enemy by both.Iran ( Science and Technology)Ancient Iranians built Qanats and Yakhchal to provide and keep water. The first windmill appeared in Iran in the 9th century. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, natural science, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Khwarizmi is widely hailed as the father of algebra. Ethanol (alcohol) was first identified by Persian alchemists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. Throughout the Middle Ages, the philosophy and mathematics of the Ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. The Academy of Gundishapur was a renowned centre of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during late antiquity and was the most important medical centre of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries. During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century.Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China. Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields, such as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider. In 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores and now runs 96 cores. Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS. Sorena 2 Robot, which was designed by engineers at University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology. In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Tehran. According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khademhosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world. Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.Omid satellite. Iran is the 9th country to put a domestically built satellite into orbit.The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the 7th country in production of uranium hexafluoride and controls the entire cycle for producing nuclear fuel. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. Recently, head of the British top spy agency MI6 forecast that Iran will achieve nuclear weapon capability in two years.The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a space rocket in 2007, which aimed at improving science and research for university students. Iran placed its domestically built satellite, Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution, on 2 February 2009, through Safir rocket, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi Zadeh. Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran. Iranian-American string theorist Cumrun Vafa proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem together with Edward Witten.Iran (Economy)The economy of Iran is the twenty-fifth largest in the world by GDP (nominal) and the eighteenth largest economy in the world by purchasing power parity (PPP). Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment. In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14% in the period 2000-2004. As at 2007, Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign exchange reserves mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.[199] In 2009 GDP was $336 billion ($876 billion at PPP), or $12,900 at PPP per capita. In 2008, Iran's official annual growth rate was 6%.[200] Because of these figures and the country's diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed (1998).Iran's automobile production crossed the 1 million mark in 2005. Iran Khodro is the largest car manufacturer in the Middle-East. It has established joint-ventures with foreign partners from 4 continents.About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Iran currently ranks 89th in tourist income, but is rated among the "10 most touristic countries" in the world in terms of its history. Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments.Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone. In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a 5-year period and increase productivity and social justice.Over the past 15 years, the authorities have placed an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness. Iran ranks 69th out of 139 in Global Competitiveness Report.Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of car-manufacture and transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals in the Middle East.
