Beam is a member which transfers the load of slab and walls to column.
Wall is use for partition in between rooms,kitchen,bath to maintain privacy
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With a span of only 8" you can probably use a wood beam, but without a set of plans no one can accurately answer your question.
If the concrete roof is on a brick load bearing wall you cannot open up the wall unless you have a concrete-steel beam below it . If you want a small door or window as opening you can open up the wall (not completely) but lay a beam under the wall for strength .
That depends on what the beam is supporting above. Ideally 150mm bearing is the minimum. I have seen as little as 50mm! But any engineer would frown upon this.
Lintel is the same as beam. It is smaller in size or dimension comparing to beam. It is usually use as a support in the upper part of the sill of windows or doors. It is also use in concrete wall when requires.