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Q: Why output voltage is not regulated?
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Is it the value of input voltage equal the value of output voltage?

No. There are several factors that may affect the output voltage. For instance: Resistors, Transformer, Voltage regulators and others that can control the output voltage to a certain level.


How do rectifier circuits stabilize the output voltage when the input voltage is subject to fluctuations?

Rectifiers don't "stabilize the output voltage" of rectifier circuits when input voltage fluctuates. The rectifiers just rectify the input, and the output will fluctuate as the input does. Another form of "conditioning" of the rectified output is needed to address the issue of fluctuations. And we use the term regulation to talk about the effect of "stabilizing" an output voltage. Through regulation, the output will be resistant to changes in voltage when changes in the input voltage occur.


What is voltage gain?

Voltage gain is the ratio of the output voltage of an amplifier to its input voltage.


Why clipping happen for op-amp?

Clipping occurs in the voltage waveform when the input voltage, multiplied by the voltage gain of the op-amp circuit, exceeds the op-amp supply voltage as limited by the output network. The supply voltage and output network, limits the maximum voltage that can be achieved at the output. The op-amp behaves normally within its range of maximum voltage output, and then it is clipped when it reaches the maximum voltage of the circuit.


What are the output voltage and current of a transformer determined by?

The secondary (output) voltage is determined by the primary voltage and the turns ratio of the transformer. The secondary current is determined by the secondary voltage and the load resistance.