Objects are usually nouns or noun phrases. Adverbs modify verbs. So no.
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Adverbs are only modified by other adverbs.
The word "by" is usually a preposition, but it can be an adverb if there is no object. "She watched as the bird flew by." "He was disappointed how quickly the two weeks went by."
No, it is an adjective, or a pronoun which might be the object of a verb.
Yes, it is an adverb. It means "in the place of (some other thing or action)." The idoimatic form "instead of" is a preposition that takes an object.
It can be, but "beside" is normally a preposition. It can appear as an adverb when the object that something is "along side" is omitted (e.g. He rode a tall horse and his squire walked beside.)