The motto of University of Zululand is 'Dilligentia Cresco'.
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In Zululand - 1915 was released on:
USA: 28 September 1915
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Rastus in Zululand - 1910 was released on:
USA: 9 May 1910
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The cast of In Zululand - 1915 includes: Mattie Edwards as Queen Cocoa
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Western Extreme - 2006 Welcome to Zululand was released on:
USA: 17 September 2012
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The cast of From Durban to Zululand - 1913 includes: Herbert Gladstone as himself Dorothy Mary Gladstone as herself
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Zululand is located in South Africa. It is a region in the eastern part of the country, known for its rich cultural heritage and as the traditional homeland of the Zulu people.
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Felixton College's motto is 'Your School Of Choice in Zululand: Committed to Excellence!'.
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A Zululander is a native or inhabitant of Zululand, the region of South Africa with a large Zulu population.
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challenges facing first year students
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Maryon Lane was born on February 15, 1931, in Zululand, South Africa.
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L. H. Samuelson has written:
'Zululand, Its Traditions, Legends and Customs'
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Oliver Wakefield was born on May 29, 1909, in Mahlabitini, Zululand, South Africa.
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The Zulu War was caused by British Aggression. The British were attracted to the Zululand seeking trade and possible wealth there. By 1840, Natal, a British Colony had been settled on the edges of Zululand. The British wanted to incorporate the British colonies, Boer settlements and Zululand under British dominion. They felt a strong leader of the Zulus would not permit this to happen so, the British High Commissioner in South Africa picked a fight with the Zulu King, falsely assuming it would be easy to take out a nation of warriors who only had spears.
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in 1901 christopher coumbus was carried by pigs into the town of KWAKAWAKA where there happened to be a load of Zulu dudes...he killed em...end of
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King of the Zulu people in South Africa. He was defeated in the remarkable British defence of the mission at Rorkes Drift in 1879.
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Zaprochilus ninae, Zayante Band-winged Grasshopper, Zerene Fritillary, Zerynthia caucasica, Zetides Swallowtail, Zoe Waterfall Damsel, Zubovskia banatica and Zululand Black Millipede are some.
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J. C. M. Mbata has written:
'Urban Bantu councils'
'Report on a visit to the Transkei, Natal and Zululand during May, 1965' -- subject(s): Apartheid
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The traditional home of the Zulu people is in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, particularly in the region known as Zululand. This is where their cultural heritage and traditions are rooted, and where you can find significant historical sites related to the Zulu kingdom.
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i am nontobeko mkhwanazi a 18 year old laidy who is doing her first year studies in university of zululand in BCOM foundation.i would like to get a financial help through zuma bursary.
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Charles L. Norris-Newman has written books within the Christian genre, focusing on topics such as faith, love, and spirituality. His works often explore the intersection of religion and everyday life, offering guidance and inspiration to his readers.
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Christopher Danziger has written:
'COBOL for beginners' -- subject(s): COBOL (Computer program language)
'Perspectives in history' -- subject(s): History, Sources
'The Zululand campaign' -- subject(s): Juvenile literature, Zulu War, 1879
'The pioneers, BC-1795' -- subject(s): Biography, History
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The Battle of Ulundi took place at the Zulu capital of Ulundi on 4 July 1879 and was the last major battle of the Anglo-Zulu War. The British army finally broke the military power of the Zulu nation by defeating the main Zulu army and immediately afterwards capturing and razing the capital of Zululand, the royal kraal of Ulundi.
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The Zulu War of 1879 changed British perceptions of Zulu military capabilities and tactics. It also resulted in the end of Zulu independence and the eventual annexation of Zululand by the British Empire.
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The world renowned Kruger National park is the largest reserve, followed by the Drakensberg mountain reserve, the St Lucia wetlands and Madikwe game reserve.
See link for more information
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The motto of University of Dundee is 'Magnificat anima mea dominum'.
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Shaka made himself the absolute ruler of zululand,his word became law.His Induna council had little say in the administration of zululand.In addition,Shaka set up regiments in all the towns.The male regiment was headed by a male Induna and the female regiment was headed by a female relative of the king(Shaka) who spied on the workings of the regiment and reported back to Shaka.furthermore,Shaka also began trading with the Portuguese at Delagoa bay and the British at port natal,but Shaka prefered British goods.Lastly,Shaka absorbed many chiefdoms and brought them under his rule. ....hope that's enough for u
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There are three African countries that are run by monarchies and earn the title 'Kingdom'. They are Lesotho, Morocco and Swaziland.
Lesotho and Morocco have constitutional monarchies, meaning that the monarch is also the head of state by the laws of the constitution. The United Kingdom, Spain, Denmark and Sweden are examples of constitutional monarchies.
Swaziland, however, has an absolute monarchy, so that the monarch shares the titles of head of state and head of government, not restricted by a constitution or law. Along with Brunei, Qatar, Oman and Saudi Arabia, Swaziland is the only current absolute monarchy, and is the only non-Islamic absolute monarchy.
Previous African monarchies included Zululand in South Africa, Ashanti in Ghana and varying sub-national monarchies in present-day Uganda.
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John Lane is an author known for his environmental writings and poetry. Some of his works include "Waquoit Bay: Seasons on a Cape Cod Salt Marsh" and "Abandoned Quarry: New and Selected Poems." Lane's writing often focuses on nature, conservation, and the human connection to the environment.
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Mattie Edwards has: Played Zulu Queen in "Zeb, Zack and the Zulus" in 1913. Performed in "Butt-ing In" in 1914. Performed in "Swami Sam" in 1914. Played Mandy in "An Innocent Victim" in 1914. Played Mandy in "He Wanted Work" in 1914. Played Mattie Washington in "He Was Bad" in 1914. Played Dinah - the Cook in "In the Soup" in 1914. Performed in "Coontown Suffragettes" in 1914. Played Mattie White in "He Said He Could Act" in 1914. Played Mandy Jones in "The Tale of a Chicken" in 1914. Played Mrs. Johnson in "The Rise of the Johnsons" in 1914. Played Queen Cocoa in "In Zululand" in 1915. Performed in "It Happened on Wash Day" in 1915. Performed in "The Rakoon Hose Company" in 1915. Played The Wife in "A New Way to Win" in 1915. Performed in "Black Art" in 1915. Performed in "The Haunted Attic" in 1915.
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Yes, Baboons can kill people. Because of their sharp teeth and ability to climb trees to do sneak attacks. They usually attack the people by jumping on them from trees and giving them very deep cuts to their head and other body parts. But, if the people have guns then the baboon may kill about one person and the other people would kill the baboon.
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The first we know of were the clashes between the indigenous San tribes and the migration of the bantu tribes from the North. The bantu pushed the San back to inaccessible mountains and sandy deserts, where a few still survive.
The the white invaders from the South, the Dutch, pushed back at the Khoi tribes who lived in the interior and drove them from their pastoral lands.
Later, the British took over the Cape from the Dutch, and started an expansion into the Eastern Cape, which precipitated a migration of farmers (Boers) into the interior. This "Great Trek" push the bantu tribes back into their own territory causing internal wars of land.
Then there were the Zulu tribe of the bantu, who expanded their territory in Natal and Zululand, pushing smaller tribes right out of the area. Some (the Matabele) were pushed as far as the present day Zimbabwe.
Most recently, around 1900 onwards, the British emptied all arable and mining land of bantu tribes and stored them in newly established reservations. All bantu who were not needed for labour were herded into these areas of what amounted to large scale house arrest.
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Well the three MAIN groups would probably have been the British, The Boers and the Zulus.
The Xhosa were also fairly powerful though.
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Or, taking a longer view, the Khoi herders clashed with the San hunter-gatherers, who then both clashed with the incoming Bantu migration from the north, and then they all clashed with the European settlers from the South.
Then the first Euro settlers, who were Dutch, were evicted by the British (after a little clash). And the British then clashed with everybody, but particularly with the Afrikaners and the Zulus. In the end the British won and took control of the entire territory.
But they gave it back. Which is how it is now.
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The Anglo-Zulu War was fought between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom in 1879 in present-day South Africa. The war was triggered by British expansionism into Zulu territory, leading to clashes over land and political control. The decisive British victory at the Battle of Ulundi led to the eventual annexation of Zululand into British colonial rule.
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Sir Bartle Frere was responsible for starting the Zulu war. He was the British High Commissioner in southern Africa and he ignored repeated orders* from London from Sir Michael Hicks Beach to refrain from starting the war. He could have stopped it or delayed it but chose to go ahead, even though he knew that this decision was beyond his remit.
Frere was convinced that the British Empire was vulnerable to Russian attack, particularly along the North East border of India. The Balkan crisis further threatened to put Russia in control of Constantinople and therefore of the Eastern Mediterranean and Suez - the main supply route from Britain to India.
(In fact, the Russian army stayed within a day's march of Constantinople right through the Zulu war and Britain stood at the brink of war against Russia in Afghanistan.)
Britain wanted South Africa to be a safe pro-British bastion on the route to British India and as a strategic naval base. Russia had a 'volunteer navy' especially for the purpose of raiding and robbing British imperial ports. Bartle Frere's primary mission was to shore up the defenses of the colony. But he found the Russian attack issue complicated by Boer revolts against British rule, a powerful Zulu nation which disputed its borders, local wars and border violations. Frere thought that the colony would never be safe if the Zulu King Chetshwayo and his 40,000 warriors did not respect British hegemony.
Chetshwayo, like the British administration, did not himself want war and he even hoped for British help against the Boers. Frere ignored a telegram from London and issued an ultimatum to the Zulus with which Frere knew the Zulus could never comply - it would have been a complete subjugation to British rule. Frere invaded Zululand and suffered a terrible defeat at Isandlwana.
(*Bartle Frere was not alone in resisting orders from London and taking a bellicose stand locally in order to protect the empire, as there was a strong body of opinion that the empire was under threat and action on the ground was necessary to protect it: in Sudan, India, Afghanistan, Malaysia.)
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Southern Africa is very fortunate to have the largest variety of animals in the world. It is home to more than 800 bird species, 150 mammal species, about 50 snake and lizard species, 11 tortoise species and thousands of invertebrate animals like insects and arachnids.
South Africa is in the fortunate position that it is home to the largest landbased mammal (the elephant), the tallest (the giraffe), the fastest (the cheetah), the smallest ("dwergskeerbek"-mouse), the largest non-flying bird (the ostrich) and the largest flying bird (the kori bustard).
Mammals
The larger mammals can be divided into three groups: herbivore, carnivore and omnivores.
Elephants, hippopotamus, rhinosorous, buffaloes and elands are the largest herbivores found in the country. The herbivore group with the largest number is the impala - the small red buck that is found almost everywhere.
The cat family, dog, hyena, otter and mongoose families all form part of the carnivore group. Almost all carnivores are hunters except for hyenas that are scavengers.
Apes, baboons and the pig family are omnivores with the exception of the warthog. Surprisingly the ugly warthog lives from grass and leaves.
Reptiles
Reptiles are cold blooded, scaly animals. More than 400 reptiles are found in Southern Africa. About 130 snake species occur in Southern Africa but only a tenth is poisonous.
The smallest land tortoise (speckled "padloper") that is only up to 8,5 cm long and the largest land tortoise (mountain tortoise) that weighs up to 40 kg, are both found in Southern Africa.
The well-known "leeurugseatortoise" (the largest tortoise in the world) which weighs up to 600 kg, is found in the coastal areas of Northern-Zululand. It grows up to 2 metres tall and the female lays her eggs on the beaches. They lay up to 1000 eggs in a breading season.
Birds
The South African coast is home to a variety of seabirds. Many are indigenous to this part of the world whilst others migrate mainly from Europe to stay here during summer. There are 16 different penguin species living in the southern hemisphere but the Jackass penguin is the only one that lives in the coastal areas of South Africa. They lay their eggs in holes in the ground or under a layer of rock to protect it from the sun.
The largest bird on earth, the ostrich, is found in large numbers in South Africa. It is mainly farmed for its feathers, skin, eggs and cholesterol-free meat. The ostrich is unique, although it can't fly, it runs up to 50km per hour over short distances.
Marine life
Although a fairly large variety of marine life is found around the South African coast, only a limited number of species of fresh water fish (100) occur in South African rivers. This is mainly due to the fact that South Africa is a dry country.
The South African coast is very rich of edible fish types. Some of these are unique to South Africa like snoek, kabbeljou and kingklip.
The Southern Right Whale is the largest mammal in the Southern Hemisphere and breeds around the southern coast of South Africa.
Insects and arachnids
Insects are the most abundant animal species on earth. The are more than a million insect species on earth and more than 100 000 can be found in South Africa. Many insects are useful but they can also be pests.
The praying mantis is one of the interesting insects found in South Africa. For centuries it was a symbol of holiness for the San people - the first people that lived in South Africa.
The Baboon spider is a ground dwelling hairy spider and considered one of the largest spiders in the world. It ranges in size from 2 to 6 cm in body length, but is not poisonous.
Amphibians
Frogs, toads, water salamanders and salamanders form the group of amphibians.
The only type of amphibians that occur in South Africa is frogs and toads.
The smallest frog is the micro-frog, which is only 1,8 mm long and is on the list of endangered species.
Surprisingly the ghost frog is only found on Table Mountain. It lives in the fast flowing streams on the mountain, is very scarce and endangered. The name ghost frog stems from the fact that it is only seen at night.
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India, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Canada, Sout Africa, Papua New Guinea, Gibraltar, Egypt, Sudan, Kenya Nigeria. There's alot more, though! Out of all these answers the biggest and most populast colony was India as it provided a lot of Britain and was very important to us as we got millions of slaves from them. And that was alll because the East India Company flopped on a big project plan and the British came and saved the day!
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A full list of countries joining the British Empire between 1750 and 1900 is shown below. No slaves were taken from India by the British Empire. The plantations of the Americas and the West Indies used slaves taken from West Africa.
1763-1782 Minorca
1798-1802 Minorca
1800-1964 Malta
1807-1890 Heligoland
1809-1864 Ionian Islands
1762-1974 Grenada
1763-1978 Dominica
1763-1873 Prince Edward Island
1763-1791 Quebec
1763-1783 East Florida
1763-1783 West Florida
1784-1867 New Brunswick
1791-1841 Lower Canada
1791-1841 Upper Canada
since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands
1818-1846 Columbia District / Oregon Country
1833-1960 Windward Islands
1833-1960 Leeward Islands
1841-1867 Province of Canada
1849-1866 Vancouver Island
1853-1863 Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands
1858-1866 British Columbia
1859-1870 North-Western Territory
1860-1981 British Antigua and Barbuda
1862-1863 Stikine Territory
1866-1871 Vancouver Island and British Columbia
1867-1931 Dominion of Canada
1871-1964 British Honduras (*Belize)
1882-1983 St. Kitts and Nevis
1889-1962 Trinidad and Tobago
1831-1966 British Guiana (Guyana)
since 1833 Falkland Islands5
1792-1961 Sierra Leone
1795-1803 Cape Colony
1806-1910 Cape Colony
1810-1968 Mauritius
1816-1965 Gambia
1856-1910 Natal
1868-1966 Basutoland (Lesotho)
1874-1957 Gold Coast (Ghana)
1882-1922 Egypt
1884-1966 Bechuanaland (Botswana)
1884-1960 British Somaliland
1887-1897 Zululand
1888-1894 Matabeleland
1890-1965 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
1890-1962 Uganda
1890-1963 Zanzibar (Tanzania)
1891-1964 Nyasaland (Malawi)
1891-1907 British Central Africa Protectorate
1893-1968 Swaziland
1895-1920 East Africa Protectorate
1899-1956 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1757-1947 Bengal (West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh)
1762-1764 Manila
1795-1948 Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
1796-1965 Maldives
1812-1824 Banka (Sumatra)
1812-1824 Billiton (Sumatra)
1819-1826 British Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore)
1824-1946 Straits Settlement of Malacca
1826-1946 Straits Settlements
1839-1967 Colony of Aden
1839-1842 Afghanistan
1841-1997 Hong Kong
1841-1946 Kingdom of Sarawak (Malaysia)
1848-1946 Crown colony of Labuan
1858-1947 British India (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Burma)
1879-1919 Afghanistan
1882-1963 British North Borneo (Malaysia)
1885-1946 Unfederated Malay States
1888-1984 Sultanate of Brunei
1888-1946 Sultanate of Sulu
1891-1971 Muscat and Oman protectorate
1892-1971 Trucial States protectorate
1895-1946 Federated Malay States
1898-1930 Weihai Garrison
1878-1960 Cyprus
1788-1901 New South Wales
1803-1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania
1807-1863 Auckland Islands
1824-1980 New Hebrides (Vanuatu)
1824-1901 Queensland
1829-1901 Swan River Colony/Western Australia
1836-1901 South Australia
since 1838 Pitcairn Islands
1841-1907 Colony of New Zealand
1851-1901 Victoria
1874-1970 Fiji
1877-1976 British Western Pacific Territories
1884-1949 Territory of Papua
1888-1965 Cook Islands
1889-1948 Union Islands (Tokelau)
1892-1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands
1893-1978 British Solomon Islands
since 1815 Ascension Island
since 1816 Tristan da Cunha
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In the 1700s most slaves had been transported from Africa across the Atlantic on British-owned ships. In Britain a moral crusade against the slave trade was aided by greater literacy and printing, and Britain's parliament passed a law in 1807 against international slave trading.
Denmark also made trading in slaves illegal, and in 1808 the United States joined in, forbidding its citizens to partake in the international slave trade. Sweden followed suit. The Dutch, whose sea captains had also engaged in transporting slaves from Africa, did the same. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, participating nations agreed that the slave trade should be abolished as soon as possible. That year the Portuguese outlawed slave trading north of the equator. In 1815, British warships began patrolling off the Atlantic coast of western Africa, performing what was seen as a moral duty, seizing ships suspected of engaging in the slave trade, no matter what flag the suspect ship was flying. In 1817 the French, again, after lapsing on the prohibition of a slave trading in the 1790s, joined the moral crusade. And in 1823, Portugal extended its prohibition on slave trading below the equator.
Plantation owners in the Americas and Africa continued to see slavery as an economic necessity, but in some instances it was economics that was diminishing the slave trade. In the 1700s the sugar industry had been expanding, with slaves doing the hard work in sugar production, but by the early 1800s a greater production and an increased supply without an equal increase in consumption of sugar dropped its market price and took a lot of the profit out of sugar growing. Growers were reneging on their loans. Bankers in Britain lost interest in investing in the sugar industry and in the selling of slaves. Instead they were investing in manufacturing and in the trade of goods related to manufacturing. Investors were becoming more interested in modern manufacturing and related commerce than they were in agriculture. Slavery was not growing with manufacturing. Hiring workers was cheaper than buying and maintaining slaves. Hired workers did not run-away and they did resort to the kind of bloody revolts that had recently occurred in Haiti.
The Ottomans and French in North AfricaMuhammad Ali was an Albanian Muslim, around thirty at the turn of the century, when he fought as an officer in the Ottoman army against Napoleon's army in Egypt. Following the British defeat of the French in Egypt, the Ottoman Sultan, Salim III, left Muhammad Ali in charge of Egypt and made him a pasha - an honorary title for military and civil commanders. Muhammad was an able organizer and soldier, and in 1807, with some assistance from the French, Muhammad Ali Pasha drove the British out of Egypt, wounding their pride.
In 1811, Muhammad Ali Pasha moved against those independent landed warlords in Egypt called Mamelukes, and he systematically exterminated them. Sultan Salim III, meanwhile had been strangled, and Salim's successors summoned Muhammad Ali Pasha to war against the Wahhabi (wahabi) -- a political and religious force across the Red Sea in Arabia. The Ottoman sultan deemed the Wahhabi heretics. They were in power in all of Arabia except Yemen, and by 1818 Muhammad Ali Pasha drove them from Arabia's most significant region for Muslims, the Hejaz.
Muhammad Ali Pasha had built a modern and professional military modeled on European standards. He was interested in modernization and developed a modern civil service, schools and public works. He sent young people from Egypt's elite to study abroad. He tried to advance Egypt's economy, to replace subsistence cultivation with the production of crops that could be sold. He employed European hydraulic engineers to build irrigation works with steam-driven pumps for pumping water in the drier summer months. Under Muhammad Ali Pasha, one million acres would be added to Egypt's farmland. Cotton growing would increase -- the cotton sold mainly to Britain, whose purchases of cotton from Egypt would rise from 50 million pounds in 1800 to 300 million in 1830. The growing of summer rice and corn, along with winter wheat and barley, and sugar, tobacco and indigo also increased. His projects were paid for by revenues from taxing Egypt's illiterate peasants -- ninety percent of Egypt's population -- whom he forced to labor on his projects, whom he conscripted into his army and whom he despised as barbarians. And peasant revolts he crushed with brutality.
In search of slaves for his army to offset losses of men in Arabia, and in search of gold, Muhammad Ali Pasha, in 1820, sent his army, led by his son, Ismail, southward into the Sudan. Ismail fought the Shakiyya people, a people with horses and a warrior tradition but still with weaponry from the Middle Ages. The Shakiyya were slaughtered, their ears sent to Egypt's capital, Cairo, by the basketful in exchange for bounty payments. Moving farther up the Nile, Ismail, in June 1821, conquered the trading center at Shendi -- where slaves had been a major item of commerce.
After Shendi, Ismail conquered Kordofan. But he found only worn out gold mines. The gold and booty that Muhammad had been hoping for would not be forthcoming. Slaves were shipped to Cairo, but only half survived the journey.
Ismail established himself at Shendi and pursued tax collection. Many people scattered, putting distance between themselves and Egypt's tax agents. Others revolted against Ismail, and, in October 1822, Ismail was assassinated. Muhammad Ali's army retaliated, burning, slaughtering and enslaving, leaving villages gutted and depopulated. By 1825, Egyptians were trying to lure people back from the hills, promising them they would not be taxed. -- for three years, at any rate. People returned to their fields. To maintain their good will, Egypt put tight controls on its occupation forces, to prevent abuses by soldiers. And those who had been local rulers they made subordinate rulers -- as conquerors had been doing for ages.
The area that was to be called the Egyptian Sudan returned to peace -- better for revenues through taxation, which began three years after the refugees returned. From Egypt, people were sent to the Sudan to improve irrigation, advance agriculture and improve pest control. New crops were successfully planted: indigo, sugar cane and fruit trees. The city of Khartoum was built as a seat for Egypt's governors. And the harvesting of slaves continued, with annual raids into the hills of Kordofan and against the Dinka and Shilluk.
The French into AlgeriaFrance's most extensive trading with Africa had been its importations of food from the coastal region of Algeria, a wheat-producing area with a population of only around 50,000. The French had bought wheat from Algeria during the French Revolution, and in the 1820s they were still refusing to pay for it. In 1827, a French envoy in Algiers told the governor of Algeria that France still had no intention of honoring its debt to Algeria, and, it is said, the governor struck the envoy with a fly swatter and threatened to end permission for France to continue trading in Algeria. France's monarch, Charles X, in June 1830, sent an invasion force of 36,000 troops to Algeria, claiming that he was responding to the insult to his ambassador. The invasion was also described as a civilizing mission and a mission to abolish slavery and piracy -- a response to Algeria's reputation in France for having attacked the ships of Christian nations during past centuries and for an estimated 25,000 European slaves in Algeria, including women in the harems.
The French force landed twenty-seven kilometers west of Algiers, and soon they raped, looted, and were desecrating Mosques. The commander of the invasion force, General Bugeaud, wrote:
We have burned extensively and destroyed extensively. It may be that I shall be called a barbarian, but as I have the conviction that I have done something useful for my country, I consider myself above the reproaches of the press.
Algiers capitulated on July 5, but the glory of conquest failed to help King Charles. By the end of the month he was fleeing into exile to England.
North Africa after 1830For strategic reasons, Britain had allied itself with the Ottoman Empire, the British and Ottomans having a common fear of Russia. And with this alliance the British won the right to trade freely in Egypt. Egypt's viceroy, Muhammad Ali Pasha, was obliged to abolish his protective tariffs. His efforts at industrialization, built on protective tariffs, ended. The aging Ali gave up on economic reform, and his interest in educational reform lapsed. The great conqueror became ill in 1848 and retired, passing his rule in Egypt and the Sudan to his son, Ibrahim.
From Egypt's administrative center in the Sudan, Khartoum, across approximately 500 miles (800 kilometers) of desert, was Darfur, which had often been raided for slaves by the Egyptians. Some such slaves were transported across the Red Sea for labor on an expanded pilgrimage site at Mecca, while others were put on ships bound for Constantinople (Istanbul) and Izmir.
West of Darfur was Wadai (Oaddai), a place with a little water and a center of trade in slaves, cattle, horses, corn and honey. There an Islamic movement called the Senussi (also Sanusi or Sanusiya) brotherhood was established, a movement whose founder, Muhammad bin Ali al-Sanusi, was from Algeria. The founder was concerned with Islam's decline in power and influence. In Arabia he had met and had associated with Wahhabi Islamists, and at Mecca he had won the support of prince Mohammad Sherif of Wadai, who had become Sultan of Wadai in 1838.
Around 2000 miles to the northwest, across more desert, the French in Algeria were consolidating their authority. In 1840, 115,000 more French soldiers arrived. France's Minister of War, General Gérard, announced that Algeria was necessary to France as an "outlet for our surplus population" and for selling manufactured products in exchange for agricultural products needed in France. And with the hard times in Europe in the 1840s the trickle of French settlers into Algeria increased.
Bordering Algeria to the west was Morocco. For centuries the Moroccans had succeeded in fighting off foreign rule, including that of the Ottoman Turks, but in the1800s the shift in military might to the favor of Europeans gave the Moroccan sultan a sense of vulnerability. The sultan, Moulay Abderramane, wanted modernization for his realm, and he wanted peace and trade with Europe as a part of that modernization. But the sultan also had opinion in Morocco to consider, and an occasional tribal uprising to suppress. The Muslims of Morocco were supporting their Muslims brothers in Algeria, who were fighting a jihad against the Christian French, and the Sultan could not refrain from at least looking like he was supporting the Muslims of Algeria.
The French drove a resistance leader, Abd al-Qadir, into Morocco, and the sultan gave public support to this Islamic hero. War broke out between France and Morocco in August 1844. The French bombarded Tangier and Essaouira -- the bombardment of Essaouira accompanied by the withdrawal of Moroccan troops and followed by pillaging by the Haha and Chiadma tribes. Near Oujda, the French routed the Moroccan army, led by the Sultan's son. Then, in September, came the Treaty of Tangier. The French were having enough trouble in Algeria and wanted peace with Morocco. They gave Oujda back to the sultan in exchange for agreement of a definite border between Morocco and Algeria. The French demanded no indemnity but demanded that the sultan declare Abd al-Qadir an outlaw.
Sensing the new weakness of Morocco, Spain declared war against Morocco in 1859. The Spanish occupied Tétouan and made peace, and in the settlement they won an expansion of territory in Morocco, including another enclave, at Ifni on the Atlantic coast. It was more of an on-going onion-like peeling away of Moroccan territory by European powers.
Spread of Islam in the Western SudanIn the 1700s in the western Sudan -- an area of grasslands and woodlands below the Sahara Desert -- Islam had been spreading. Herdsmen resented paying taxes to agricultural kingdoms and they had been converting to Islam, which gave the isolated herdsmen a sense of strength and of belonging to something great. In the highlands of Futa Jalon and Futa Toro, Muslim herdsmen rebelled, took power away from non-Muslim chieftains and began building mosques, establishing Islam law and building feudal-like confederations. And in the early 1800s, Muslim empires arose around Hausaland and Masina.
In Hausaland in 1804, Muslim herdsmen went on jihadsagainst non-Muslim Hausa chiefdoms. The Hausa chiefs and aristocrats had been annoying their peasants and the peasants had been giving them little support. The Hausa chiefs had also been weakened by disunity. One Hausa chief sent his cavalry against the Muslims, but to no avail. The Muslims gained power in the region and built a new capital for themselves at Sokoto.
Among the Muslims at Sokoto an elite ruled with a combination of military and religious authority. Campaigns of expansion were launched, and by 1817, the Muslims had built an empire -- the Sokoto Empire -- more than five hundred miles (800 kilometers) from west to east and as far south as Kontagora. An attempt was made to expand eastward into the Bornu region, a region that had already been under the control of Muslims. Muslims warred against Muslims, and the expansion failed.
Literacy increased under the Muslims. The caliph of the Sokoto Empire from 1817 to 1837 was Muhammad Bello, who wrote tracts on science, law, morality, history and Islamic doctrine. He attempted to rule in accordance with Islamic law: the Sharia. Sokoto became a center where Islamic scholarship flourished. And, with Bello, military campaigns continued -- more than fifty in his twenty years of rule -- campaigns of expansion or campaigns against rebellion. He sought to limit excesses committed by his troops and to limit greed-inspired corruption among officials.
By Muhammad Bello's death in 1837 the Sokoto Empire included an area south and west of Raba and the Adamawa region -- an empire of around ten million people. A Muslim elite was ruling over peasants as had the Hausa aristocracy. Trade flourished, with Kano as a major market center. Slaves were employed in agriculture and as domestics, and in the Adamawa region some landowners had more than a thousand slaves.
West of the Sokoto Empire, the Masina Empire had arisen after conflict in the 1700s between Muslim herdsmen and Masina overlords. By the early 1800s, Masina had its own Muslim overlords. A Muslim named Seku Ahmadu Lobboe was opposed to the mixing of animism and Islam tolerated by these overlords, and, in either 1810 or 1818 (a disputed date), he led a jihad against what were called satanic factions. He overran various chiefdoms, taking power in Jenne and gaining a measure of control over Timbuktu. He led a council of forty that was opposed to the use of alcohol or tobacco and opposed to dancing -- prohibitions not welcomed by many, especially in urban centers.
The Atlantic Coast and InlandFreetown had been a British colony since 1808. The British navy was using it as a base for their patrols along Africa's coastline, and there freed slaves from British territory in the Caribbean were settled. The first of them -- around 400 -- had arrived in 1787, and they had been expected to support themselves by farming, but many had turned to trade. Since1815, Freetown was a center for slaves rescued from slave ships by the British navy. Hundreds of ships hauling slaves were seized, while some got through, taking slaves to be sold to sugar planters in Cuba and Brazil.
British merchants were pursuing legitimate trade along Africa's Atlantic Coast. From Senegal, the British were acquiring a hardened resin of the Acacia tree, used for dyes in its textile factories. They were acquiring groundnuts from Guinea, gold from Asante and palm oil, the latter harvested on African-owned plantations using slave labor. Palm oil was Africa's foremost export to the Europeans, the oil used by the Europeans for lubricating their machines.
In 1824, forces from Asante overran a British force along the Gold Coast, putting Britain control of the forts in decline there for a few years. In 1827, the British took over administration of the island of Fernando Po (between the Niger River delta and Spanish Guinea) with Spain's approval -- a Spanish attempt to develop the island having failed.
LiberiaIn 1820 the United States dispatched four ships to patrol the coast of Africa in cooperation with the British.
In 1822, freed blacks from the United States arrived in western Africa, their voyage paid for by the American Colonization Society. The society's stated purpose was for the freed blacks to start a new life in Africa, safe from discrimination and persecution. The refugees were put ashore at a spot named Liberia -- associated with the word liberty. The new colony suffered from poor administration, and the refugees had to defend themselves from attacks by local people resenting their intrusion.
In 1824, a U.S. Supreme Court ruling undercut efforts at intercepting slave ships, and the U.S. campaign off the coast of Africa ended.
In 1847 Liberia became an independent republic. The Liberians were trading in palm oil, coffee, ivory and camwood (used as a red dye). Some integration with people around Liberia had taken place, with the original migrants from the United States and their descendants dominating the economy and intellectual life of the new country.
The French in SenegalIn the 1700s, Britain and France had been in conflict over the coastal colony of Senegal, with British rule at the town of St. Louis a disturbance to Catholics there. Then in 1814 the Treaty of Paris returned Senegal to the French. Thereafter, the largely mixed-race people of the colony continued to acquire French culture, including liberalism of the Enlightenment tradition. France tried to exploit its colony by encouraging the growth of agricultural products desired in France, but its agricultural program in Senegal failed -- a failure that has been blamed on mismanagement. France monopolized trade into and out of Senegal, and until 1817 slaves were openly shipped from Senegal across the Atlantic.And from Yao traders on Africa's east coast the French were acquiring slaves for their plantations on the islands of Mauritius and Reunion (east of Madagascar). After 1817, when France joined other nations in abolishing international slave trading, slaves were sneaked out of Africa, including attempts to run past the British navy on the Atlantic coast.
France's government cooperated with the British in trying to suppress the slave trade. Slaves taken from a ship off the coast of Angola were given sanctuary on the coastal island of Gorée, formerly the largest slave trading post on the Atlantic, halfway between the mouth of the Senegal River and Gambia. After three years on Gorée, these freed slaves were settled at a French trading station that had been founded in 1843, just south of Spanish Guinea, at a timber exporting point, which, in 1848, was given the name Libreville (French for Freetown).
Blacks, Power and Slavery in the 1850sAcross greater western Africa, slavery remained a major activity. The production of palm oil was rising, and the demand for palm oil was creating wars among Africans around the southern portion of the Niger River. The Oyo empire, weakened by civil wars, became a source of slaves for its neighbors, and slaves from Oyo and Igbo were exported from Bonny and Brass despite patrolling British gunships. The British began extending their power up the Niger River, amid the divided and warring peoples, to eliminated the Ijo middlemen in palm oil trade and to trade directly with the Igbo. And in 1851 the British navy occupied Lagos in an effort to shut down the slave market there.
From the Portuguese controlled west coast of southern Africa, Angola, the exportation of slaves ended around 1850. Inland from the coastal town of Benguela, the Ovimbundu (Umbundu) people lost business with the decline in the slave trade, but they remained successful organizers of trading caravans and a link between the Portuguese on the coast and Chokwe suppliers of goods from farther inland. Their success in trading and their possession of guns gave them economic superiority and prestige over some other tribes in the area. The Portuguese found them friendly -- as good traders are -- and many Ovimbundu readily acquired aspects of western culture, while keeping their religious traditions.
The Chokwe had changed from full-time hunting for game to searching also for ivory and beeswax with which to trade. They had acquired firearms and had used their guns against those they had come across who were not so well armed. The Chokwe strengthened their communities by capturing women, whom they put to work growing food and processing beeswax. The Chokwe moved farther inland to the northeast, where they were able to take advantage of local displeasure with Lunda kings, who were taxing villages heavily and taking as taxes a quota in slaves. The Chokwe absorbed the western portion of the crumbling Lunda empire
Back toward the center-south of Africa in the mid-1800s, those called Bisa became participants in the trading of goods that passed through the Lunda people at Bunkeya and then to the east coast. Lunda chieftains took a cut in the Bisa trader's profits by customs dues, and they obliged the Bisa to pay them tribute. The Bisa were also subjected to raids from the Bemba to their north, who had acquired firearms.
With the newly acquired power that came with guns, a Bemba chieftain created a greater unity among the Bemba and, in 1856, he was able to fend off an attack by the Ngoni, from the south.
In the 1860s, on an extension of the Congo River called the Lubala, around Nyangwe and Kasongo, another trading power with guns arose. This was a federation ruled by Hamed bin Muhammed, commonly known as Tippu Tip, a man of mixed Arab and black African descent. The federation engaged in a variety of activities, including hunting in the forest and raiding surrounding villages. They captured women for concubines and men and women to work their plantations of sugar cane, rice and maize. And they used captives as porters in their trade eastward, through Ujiji and Tabora, to Zanzibar. Tippu Tip did much to destroy the Songye towns of the upper Lualaba River, and he weakened the Luba empire to his south. His empire stretched from the Luba, in the south, northward to where the Congo River turned westward.
The Zulu Empire in the SoutheastIn the early 1800s a great social disruption appeared in the southeast of Africa, south of the Limpopo River. This was an area relatively free of disease, an area largely of grassland and sparse forest, good for farming and cattle raising. It was an area, as elsewhere in Africa's southeast, where Bantu people, across the centuries, had come -- tribes with different dialects of a common Bantu language. It was an area that had been sparsely populated by farmers and herdsmen. There had been occasional raiding or fighting over cattle grazing rights, with a warfare that had been recreational and without much bloodshed. Warriors on opposing sides had squared off, shouted insults at each other while their women watched from the sidelines and shouted encouragement. A few prisoners might be taken, followed by negotiations for prisoner returns and reparations payments in cattle. Then in the early 1800s this changed. An increase in population intensified competition for land. Larger groupings emerged for the sake of waging bigger wars, and wars became more intense.
A military leader and ruler emerged among the Zulu who was to remain famous into the twenty-first century among people interested in Africa. His name was Shaka. He was the son of a Zulu chieftain, Senzangahona, and of a woman not recognized as one of the chieftain's legitimate wives. Shaka's mother was driven into exile, and she took her little son, Shaka, with her. When Shaka was fifteen he and his mother were driven away again, and they found shelter in another clan. When Shaka was twenty-three, he was called into service by a chieftain named Dingiswayo, leader of one of the three strong federations that had emerged in Zululand, and Shaka's bravery won Dingiswayo's attention. Dingiswayo adopted Shaka as a son.
Shaka's real father died in 1816, when Shaka was twenty-nine, and Dingiswayo supported Shaka to succeed his father as a chieftain. Shaka employed a half-brother to assassinate the legitimate heir, another half brother.
As chieftain -- under Dingiswayo as overlord -- Shaka reorganized his military, advancing their weaponry from light spears for tossing at one's enemy to heavy stabbing spears for hand-to-hand fighting. And his warriors were trained to fight as a unit rather than as individuals, in a formation similar to Alexander the Great's phalanx, with shields of cowhide to protect against thrown spears.
In 1818, Dingiswayo fought a war against one of the other two federations in Zululand: the Ndwandwe in Zululand's far north. Dingiswayo was routed and killed. Shaka had not participated in the war, and he was now without an overlord. He added what had been Dingiswayo's army to his own, and he led his army against the Ndwandwe. The Ndwandwe force was greater in number, but Shaka's force was better at warfare, and Shaka shattered the Ndwandwe. The Ndwandwe scattered, migrating northward, leaving Shaka as overlord in the whole of Zululand.
In the wake of his great victory, Shaka consolidated his rule, putting to death a recalcitrant chief and his close relatives. All of Zululand was organized. Youth from all of Zululand were to serve in Shaka's army. From around 1821, young women were recruited into guilds for national service. Girls in the hundreds were distributed by "Father Shaka" as wives.
Shaka had created the most powerful African kingdom in the southeast of Africa, and it was a source of pride for the Zulu. But his manner of rule annoyed some of the Zulu, and three of his commanders fled, taking their regiments with them. One of the commanders founded his own kingdom in Gazaland. Other Zulus fleeing Shaka created what was to become known as Swaziland. Zulus fled as far north as Lake Malawi and eastward to Bechuana.
Shaka's raids for cattle and what else he could find sent neighboring non-Zulus fleeing, leaving areas depopulated. These were known as the Time of Troubles. Southwest of Zululand, in mountainous Basutoland, an able leader, Moshoeshoe, used guns, cavalry and diplomacy to fend off the Zulu, and he built up his nation, uniting a diverse people uprooted by war.
It was Shaka's aim, it is said, to rule all Africans, and warfare continued as Shaka expanded his empire. In 1824, two officers in Britain's Royal Navy arrived with a few English adventures at Natal, south of Zululand, hoping to create a settlement. Shaka was curious and befriended them, winning their support for his wars of conquest, Shaka in return recognizing Britain's occupation of land at Natal.
While on a hunt with the British, Shaka learned that his mother lay dying. In grief and in reverence to his mother he ordered several men executed, but his order was carried out chaotically and it is said that more than 7,000 were killed. The Zulu were becoming tired of constant warfare and all the bloodshed, and Shaka appeared to be losing touch with reality. On September 22nd, 1828, Shaka was stabbed to death by various half-bothers, and one them, Dingane (or Dingaan), replaced Shaka as ruler of Zululand.
British, Boers and South AfricaThe British had taken Cape Colony from the Dutch East India Company while the Netherlands was ruled by Napoleon, a British squadron of ships landing 6000 men and routing the local Dutch in 1806. The British used the Cape Colony for provisioning its ships involved in tea and other trading with India and points beyond. They won recognition as possessing the colony at the Congress of Vienna at the close of the Napoleonic wars, the British agreeing to pay six million sterling for it and a part of Guiana in South America, which had been owned by the Dutch West India Company.
The Cape Colony consisted of around 26,000 Europeans -- mainly Dutch Boers - 30,000 slaves, 20,000 of mixed race and some Khoikhoi (Hottentots). The British were uncomfortable with the slavery that came with the colony, Britain having outlawed the slave trade but not slavery itself. They tried to establish a rule of law, including law that protected slaves from abuse. They encouraged the Boers to give up their slaves and they taxed them, and the Boers looked upon the British authorities as oppressive.
In June 1820, more than two thousands migrants arrived from Britain -- 1610 men and 659 women.- looking for land to acquire, land that was made available by Boers moving just beyond the colony to escape the British. In the coming few years the new colonists were to communicate their disappointment with farming to people back in Britain, discouraging further migration for the purpose of farming.
Slave Emancipation and The Great TrekIn 1833, Britain's parliament passed the Abolition of Slavery Act, to be applied in all of the lands they controlled, set to take effect in August, 1834. In 1835 the British began emancipating slaves in the West Indies and in the Cape Colony. Boers in Cape Colony disliked it, and in 1836 from 10,000 to 14,000 Boers began what was to be known as their Great Trek, away from British rule and for new lands to occupy. The Xhosa were blocking their movement eastward, and the Boers moved instead in a northern and eastern direction, on horseback and in covered wagons pulled by oxen, taking their slaves with them, and their rifles and their one book -- the Bible. They were libertarian, slave master, militiamen, pioneer and patriarchal Biblical fundamentalist rolled into one. They believed in their own version of ad hoc justice, and they believed that whatever land they could take, by violence if necessary, should be theirs.
The Boers by-passed Basutoland, in the Drakensburg Mountains, and made allies with the Rolong, who welcomed them as allies against the Ndebele (Matabele). The Ndebele were warrior-refugees from Zululand and Shaka's wars, and they had been rapacious in claiming new territory for themselves, but the Boers were too much for them. At the Battle of Vegkop, in October 1836, the Boers overpowered the Ndebele. They fought the Ndebele again in late 1837, defeating them decisively, the Ndebele losing an estimated 3,000 and the Boers losing none. The Ndebele retreated northward, and by around 1840 they settled in Matabeleland, on the Zimbabwe plateau, leaving what became known as the Transvaal to the Boers.
Boers also moved eastward, across the Drakensburg Mountains toward the Zulus and Natal. The Zulus attacked, and in December 1838 the Boers counterattacked, their force of 500 routing the Zulus. The River Ncome was renamed Blood River for having turned red with the blood of Zulus. The Zulu dead has been estimated at 3000. The leader of the Zulus, Dingane (Shaka's successor) lost prestige. Some followers of Dingane moved their support to his brother, Mpande. Mpande collaborated with the Boers and in 1839 defeated a force led by Dingane. In January 1840, Mpande unseated Dingane, who fled to Swaziland, where he was murdered. Zulu resistance to the Boer had ended, and the Zulus evacuated all territory west and south of the Tugela River.
British, Boers and the Xhosa , 1842 to 1856In 1842, British troops occupied Natal, and the British annexed the port in 1843 and made it a dependency of Cape Colony. A British company started cotton growing near Natal -- the Natal Cotton Company -- and one of the company's directors went to Germany in search of settlers. Economically these were hard times in Europe, and in Lower Saxony he found Germans willing to plant cotton for the company. In 1847 the colonists settled in what was called "New Germany" just outside Port Natal, but their attempt to grow cotton failed. Some of the Germans began supplying vegetables to the growing town of Natal. The Natal Cotton Company disbanded and many of the settlers moved inland, forty miles from the coast, to Pietermaritzburg, a town that had been founded by the Boers in 1838.
Boers, meanwhile, were in conflict with blacks called Griqua, just north of Cape Colony. The British intervened and declared the area a dependency of Cape Colony.
In December 1847, the governor of Cape Colony, Harry Smith, proclaimed the southern bank of the Orange River as the Cape Colony's northern boundary. The number of whites at Cape Colony was nearing 140,000, and by 1850 the colony was suffering from a need of skilled labor: bricklayers, printers, carpenters, dressmakers and gardeners.
In 1852, in what is called the Sand River Convention, the British recognized Boer independence, or right to administer their own affairs, beyond the Cape Colony's border, with the caveat that the Boers end slavery.
The Boers were still fighting what were called Kaffir wars -- Kaffir a word used by the Boers for blacks. And, in 1856, war erupted between the Boers and the able leader, Moshoeshoe, of Basutoland, the Boers having made incursions against Basutoland.
The Boers were also making incursions against the Xhosa and the Thembu, just east of Cape Colony. The Xhosa were suffering from diminishing herds, and in 1856 they responded to the hardship the way that Jews had around the time of Christ and as Plains Indians soon would in North America:the Xhosa adopted an apocalyptic prophesy. A girl, it is said, had a vision while fetching water. Drawing from the prophesy the Xhosa sacrificed all their cattle and refrained from sowing grain. This, they believed, would bring their ancestors back from the dead, would sweep whites and doubters into the sea and leave them free from warfare and loss of land. The Xhosa starved, and they dispersed, looking for food and employment, and Boers increased their expansion against their land.
David LivingstoneA 27-year-old ordained Scottish minister and member of the London Missionary Society, David Livingston, arrived at Cape Colony in 1841. He wished to convert Africans to Christianity, to oppose slavery and to enlist Great Britain in his crusade. In 1843 he married the daughter of a British missionary in Africa, and he spent a few years in Bechuana, learning languages and customs. In June1849, he started a trek northward with his wife and two children, two other explorers and African guides. In 1851 he reached the Zambezi River, and in April 1852 he returned to Capetown and sent his family to England to recover from the rigors of their travel.
Livingston was unpopular at Capetown. He was believed to be too sympathetic with blacks and to have sold them guns, and he returned to his travels unable to buy ammunition for his own weapon. He journeyed northward to the Zambezi again, then to Lake Dilolo in February 1854, and on to Luanda, on the Atlantic Coast at the end of May. He returned to the Zambezi River and in November 1855 found the great waterfalls, Musi-o-Tunya, which he named after Britain's queen, Victoria. On May 20, 1856, he arrived on the east coast, near the mouth of the Zambezi, and he returned to England where he was celebrated as a hero.
Arabs, Blacks and Mixed on the East CoastThe monsoon winds to the southwest, between June and October, made easy sailing for traders from Oman along the eastern coast of Africa, and an easy return voyage in the opposite direction in the monsoons of December to April. Salalah was one of the ports for travel to and from the African coast, and it was Oman that had come to dominate the coast politically.
In 1804, after murdering his father's cousin, Badar bin Seif, Seyyid Said became the Sultan of Oman. He took the title "Seyyid," replacing his former title, "Imam," and his wife took the title "Seyyida. And after consolidating his power in Oman, Seyyid Said moved against members of a clan from Oman, the Mazrui, who lately had been exercising power independently at Mombasa. While Seyyid Said's navy was bombarding Mombasa's Fort Jesus, a British ship docked at Mombasa and threw its support to the Mazrui, hoping that Britain could establish a base at Mombasa and improve its opposition to the slave trade in the region. A contingent from the ship planted the British flag and declared Mombasa an English protectorate, but, in 1826, Said obliged the British to withdraw.
Said was encouraging Arabs in eastern Africa to enlarge their clove plantations on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba -- plantations worked by slave labor. In 1837 he defeated the Mazrui in Mombasa, and, in 1840 he moved the center of his rule to the coastal island of Zanzibar, 150 miles (240 km) to the south.
Zanzibar was a center of trade: slaves and ivory from Africa's interior and spices from the island to the mainland. Said pursued friendly relations with traders in the interior. He exploited rivalries between tribes, encouraging stronger chiefdoms to conquer their weaker neighbors and sell them into slavery. He increased the size of the caravans from the coast, and, as a result of his endeavors, Arabic trading centers developed at Tabora and at Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika, which served as staging areas for deeper penetration and to Buganda beginning in 1844. Said was growing richer from his trading in ivory and slaves. Then in 1847, to stay on the good side of the British, Seyyid Said agreed to end his trading in slaves. But Seyyid Said continued doing well, becoming the world's foremost exporter of cloves, ivory and gum-copal.
Said encouraged the immigration of bankers from India to Zanzibar, and the Indians were granted religious toleration. Indians became dominant in Said's financial and customs administrations, while Arabs dominated his military. Cultural differences created tensions between the Indians and Arabs, but they tolerated each other enough for peace and the functioning of authority.
Tension also existed between people in Oman and those in Zanzibar. Omani women thought women in Zanzibar uncivilized. Members of the royal family in Oman thought themselves of higher rank than their kin in Africa, and they viewed speaking a language other than Arabic as proof of barbarity. [note]
A comment by Princess Salme, one of the daughters of Sultan Seyyid Said, quoted by Abdul Sheriff in Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar.
The Fall of the Kololo and Survival of the LoziThe people called Kokolo (Makololo) had been driven away by Shaka in the early 1820s and were on the run, until the 1830s when they moved with their cattle into territory that had belonged to the Lozi, along the upper Zambezi River. They were aggressive and militarily superior to the Lozi, and they conquered the Lozi. And Like other conquerors they kept local political relations in place, becoming overloads, while some of Lozi royalty fled northward. They taxed the Lozi, turned some into agricultural slaves and sold others to slave traders in exchange for more guns. Lozi society became more cattle oriented, and the Kokolo went on regular cattle raids against the Ila people to their east.
The Kololo were less successful at suppressing subversion than the Spartans had been. Lozi royalty sneaked back and in 1864 led an uprising against the oppression, an uprising that annihilated or scattered the Kokolo. Elements of the Kokolo language, Sikololo, and cattle raising remained with the Lozi.
The Ndebele, Shona, Ovimbundu, Prazeros, and OthersThe Ndebele, who were driven northward by the Boers, settled on the Zimbabwe plateau in the 1840s. There, with their Zulu-style regiments and fighting methods, they overran peoples called Sotho and Shona -- the latter already weakened by attacks by the Ngoni from north of the Zambezi River. The Ndebele expected tribute (taxes) from those they had overrun, and they raided those who were late in payment.
To the north of the Zimbabwe Plateau, along the Zambezi River in Portuguese East Africa, were the Prazeros and their slave-soldiers. The Prazeros were mainly black but proud of their mixed Portuguese heritage. They were estate owners and overlords, expecting subordinate farmers to support them and their armies. With the decline of the Maravi Empire in the 1700s the Prazeros had gained control over the ivory trade, and in the mid-1800s, well-armed with guns and without powerful state to oppose them, they extended their hunting and raiding 300 miles (480 km) inland from the coast.
Decentralization in EthiopiaOn the east coast, in a land called Ethiopia, Christian emperors, in their stone and mortar palace at Gondar, had been declining in power. They lived by taxing people around Gondar and surrounded themselves with court ceremonies and called themselves King of Kings, but they had little more than nominal power elsewhere in what is called Ethiopia, where warlords ruled.
The warlords received favors from local folk. A visit to a village by a warlord was an occasion for the village people to show their respect, done with a celebration and feasting. And the warlord received gifts -- perhaps oxen for plowing the warlord's land, or sheep, goats, butter, honey or some other goods, usually following the warlords announcement of some need, such as paying for a military campaign, marrying another woman or his loss of personal property.
Gondar was where three caravan routes intersected, all of them to an from Muslim controlled territories, with trade in Gondar controlled largely by Muslim merchants. From the northwest and northeast came textiles and various manufactured goods, including guns. From the south came gold, ivory and slaves. Gondar had a Muslim district and a larger Orthodox Christian district. Roman Catholicism, the religion of a few racially mixed descendants of Portuguese and Ethiopians had been suppressed in the 1600s, and, however many Roman Catholics there now were in Gondar, they practiced their faith in secret.
Living outside the city to the northwest, in small dusty villages, were the Qemants, who worked at growing food and also sold timber and firewood to people in Gondar. Their religion contained elements of the religion of the ancient Hebrews and animism.
Between Gondar and Massawa, a greater power than Gondar had arisen. This was Tegray, under the warlord Dajazmach Webé Hayla Maryam (1799-1867), who had ruled since 1835. Tegray had long controlled the salt trade in the region, and, with greater access to the coast than Gondar, Tegray had acquired a larger stock of firearms. Webé considered himself ruler of the Red Sea coast and was disturbed by the extension of Ottoman power to Massawa. Realizing that his power was not great enough to keep Muslim armies from Massawa, he begged the British for assistance, writing letters to Queen Victoria. But help from Britain was not forthcoming. So he turned to the French for help.
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"Apartheid" is Afrikaans for the state of being seperated. This system was formulated by the National Party which ruled South Africa at the time. The first policies of this system stripped black people of their South African citizenship. The Apartheid regime had chosen four economically ruined areas of the country and had given those to the black people to rule as they feel. The white government had noticed that since those four states were unproductive, many blacks did not want to move there. As a result, the Apartheid regime had begun implemeting policies into the legal system of South Africa that allowed for better services to be provided for white people and much lower services for the black and other non-white race groups. The white government thought that these policies would drive the black people to move into those four states and leave South Africa. The opposite was true. The black people felt that the Apartheid policies had violated their human rights. In order to be totally neutral on the issue, the main Apartheid policies have been placed below for the reader to take his/her on view on the issue. This has been taken from Wikipedia encyclopedia. For more detailed information please visit the related links. Remember, Apartheid was and is a very controverisial issue. Please educate yourself well on the topic by reading informative media, peoples' experiences etc.
To oversee the apartheid legislation, the bureaucracy expanded, and, by 1977, there were more than half a million white state employees.
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The main idea of Apartheid was to establish complete racial segregation and to establish a sense of white superiority. Therefore, the large suburbs and central business districts were reserved for whites only. White people had freedom of movement across the country. They had better education, hospitals, transport, malls, cinema and more. They even had reserved benches in parks which would have a sign that read: Europeans only. The Indian, Malay and a few coloureds that passed as non-black had part of the large suburbs reserved for them. They had received normal education. However they did not have freedom of movemement and had to carry a pass with them all the time. They could not use transport, qeues, malls, benches etc that were reserved for Europeans. They did however get their own public transport which was the left over buses which the White transport company would dispose of. In prison, this race group received a slice more bread than blacks. The black people were made to live in townships and informal settlements. They were paid very little. They would mainly walk to work. They were taught vernacular education. Their school syllabus was of a very low standard. They also could not use items reserved for Europeans. They had very little freedom of movement which was stated on their passes. They were forbidden to be in any place except their work town and hometown which was stated on their passes. Failure to present a pass would result in imprisonment. Blacks were tortured in prison.
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Zabaleta Anchovy: Anchovia clupeoides
Zabrachia Polita: Zabrachia polita
Zabulon Golden Skipper: Poanes zabulon
Zabulon Skipper: Poanes zabulon
Zaca Blenny: Bulimulus guadalupnsis, Malacoctenus zacae
Zaca Shoulderband: Helminthoglypta phlyctaena
Zacapu Allotoca: Allotoca zacapuensis
zacatecan Deer Mouse: Peromyscus difficilis
Zacatecas Harvest Mouse: Reithrodontomys zacatecae
Zacatecas Shrew: Sorex emarginatus
Zaela Mimic-White: Dismorphia zaela
Zaire Lampeye: Hypsopanchax platysternus
Zaire Prawn: Palaemon maculatus
Zaisan Minnow: Phoxinus phoxinus
Zaisan Mole Vole: Ellobius tancrei
Zale Buchholzi: Zale buchholzi
Zale Curema: Zale curema
Zale Duplicata: Zale duplicata
Zale Helata: Zale helata
Zale Metatoides: Zale metatoides
Zale Obliqua: Zale obliqua
Zale Squamularis: Zale squamularis
Zale Submediana: Zale submediana
Zama Metalmark: Charis zama
Zambesi Parrotfish: Hippopotamyrus discorhynchus
Zambezi Bream: Pharyngochromis acuticeps, Phascolion lucifugat
Zambezi Brown Ear Tick: Rhipicephalus zambeziensis
Zambezi Electric Catfish: Malapterurus shirensis
Zambezi Flapshell Turtle: Cycloderma frenatum
Zambezi Grunter: Parauchenoglanis ngamensis
Zambezi Happy: Pharyngochromis acuticeps, Pharyngochromis darlingi, Phascolion lucifugat
Zambezi Parrotfish: Hippopotamyrus discorhynchus
Zambezi Shark: Carcharhinus leucas
Zamboanga Bulbul: Ixos rufigularis zamboanga
Tuskfish: Choerodon zamboangae
Zamia Scale: Furchadaspis zamiae
Zamurito: Calophysus macropterus
Zander: Notropis heterolepsis, Sander lucioperca
Zandolie: Ameiva ameiva
Zange: Synbranchus marmoratus
Zanj Sun Squirrel: Heliosciurus undulatus
Zanthe: Vimba vimba
Zanzibar Barb: Barbus zanzibaricus
Zanzibar Bushbaby: Galagoides zanzibaricus
Zanzibar Butterflyfish: Chaetodon zanzibarensis
Zanzibar Galago: Galagoides zanzibaricus
Zanzibar Guitarfish: Rhinobatos zanzibarensis
zanzibar Tonguesole: Cynoglossus zanzibarensis
Zapata Rail: Cyanolimnas cerverai
Zapata Sparrow: Torreornis inexpectata
Zapata Wren: Ferminia cerverai
Zapate: Oligoplites saliens, Oligoplites saurus
Zaphir's Shrew: Crocidura zaphiri
Zarem: Octopus globosus
Zarte: Vimba vimba
Zarucco Duskywing: Erynnis zarucco
Zarudny's Jird: Meriones zarudnyi
Zarudny's Rock Shrew: Crocidura zarudnyi
Zarudny's Shrew: Crocidura zarudnyi
Zarundny's Jird: Meriones zarudnyi
Zavora Pipefish: Halicampus zavorensis
Zayante Band-Winged Grasshopper: Trimerotropis infantilis
Ze: Geodromicus suturalis, Tachyporus nitidulus
Zebina Hairstreak: Rekoa zebina
Zebra: Danio rerio, Diplodus cervinus hottentotus, Equus zebra, Equus zebra hartmannae, Heliconius charitonius
Zebra Angelfish: Genicanthus caudovittatus, Pomacanthus semicirculatus
Zebra Barb: Puntius lineatus
zebra Blenny: Cirripectes quagga, Istiblennius zebra, Omobranchus zebra, Salaria basilisca
Zebra Bullhead Shark: Heterodontus ramalheira, Heterodontus zebra, Turbonilla inaequalis
Zebra Caterpillar Moth: Melanchra picta
Zebra Catfish: Brachyplatystoma juruense
Zebra Chanchito: Archocentrus nigrofasciatus
Zebra Cichlid: Archocentrus nigrofasciatus
Zebra Clingfish: Tomicodon zebra
Zebra Clubtail: Stylurus scudderi
Zebra Crab: Zebrida adamsi
Zebra Danio: Danio rerio
Zebra Dart-Goby: Ptereleotris zebra
Zebra Dartfish: Ptereleotris zebra
Zebra Dove: Geopelia striata
Zebra Duiker: Cephalophus zebra
Zebra Finch: Poephila guttata
Zebra Firefish: Dendrochirus brachypterus, Dendrochirus zebra
Zebra Fish: Girella zebra, Naesiotus asperatus, Opsaridium peringueyi, Percina caprodes, Percina caprodes carbonaria, Percina caprodes semifasciata
Zebra Frogfish: Antennarius hispidus
Zebra Garden Eel: Heteroconger polyzona
Zebra Goby: Eviota zebrina, Kaliella fastigiata, Lythrypnus zebra, Ptereleotris zebra, Zebrus zebrus
Zebra Heliconian: Heliconius charithonia, Heliconius charithonius, Heliconius charitonius
Zebra Hermit: Clibanarius zebra Zebra Horn Shark: Heterodontus zebra, Turbonilla inaequalis
Zebra Hovergoby: Ptereleotris zebra
Zebra Humbug: Dascyllus aruanus
Zebra Lampeye: Hypsopanchax zebra
Zebra Leafslug: Phyllaplysia taylori
Zebra Lebbeid: Lebbeus microceros
Zebra Lionfish: Dendrochirus zebra
Zebra Loach: Syncrossus berdmorei, Botia striata, Syncrossus hymenophysa
Zebra Longwing: Heliconius charithonia tuckeri, Heliconius charitonia, Heliconius charitonius
Zebra Malawi Cichlid: Maylandia zebra
Zebra Mbuna: Maylandia xanstomachus, Maylandia zebra
Zebra Moray: Echidna nebulosa, Gymnomuraena zebra
Zebra Mosaic: Colobura dirce
Zebra Mussel: Dreissena polymorpha
Zebra Nerite: Puperita pupa
Zebra Perch: Hermosilla azurea
Zebra Periwinkle: Littorina ziczac, Nodilittorina ziczac
Zebra Port Jackson Shark: Heterodontus zebra, Turbonilla inaequalis
Zebra Scaly Cricket: Cycloptilum zebra
Zebra Seabream: Diplodus cervinus, Diplodus cervinus cervinus, Diplodus cervinus hottentotus
Zebra Seahorse: Hippocampus zebra
Zebra Shark: Stegostoma fasciatum
Zebra Shrimp: Rimapenaeus pacificus
Zebra Sole: Gymnachirus melas, Zebrias quagga, Zebrias regani, Zebrias synapturoides, Zebrias zebra, Zebrias zebrinus
Zebra Spiny Eel: Macrognathus zebrinus
Zebra Stripestreak: Panthiades bathidais
Zebra Surgeonfish: Acanthurus lineatus
Zebra Swallowtail: Eurytides marcellus
zebra Sweetlip: Plectorhinchus paulayi
Zebra Tick: Rhipicephalus pulchellus
Zebra Tilefish: Branchiostegus semifasciatus
Zebra Turkeyfish: Dendrochirus zebra
Zebra Unicornfish: Naso vlamingii
Zebra- Perch Sea Chub: Hermosilla azurea
Zebra-Crossing Hairstreak: Panthiades bathildis
Zebra-Perch Sea Chub: Hermosilla azurea
Zebra-Snout Seahorse: Hippocampus barbouri
Zebra-Tail: Enoplosus armatus
Zebra-Tailed Lizard: Callisaurus draconoides, Callisaurus draconoides draconoides, Callisaurus draconoides myurus, Callisaurus draconoides rhodostictus, Callisaurus draconoides ventralis
Zebraface Blenny: Coralliozetus micropes
Zebrafish: Danio rerio, Pterois russelii, Pterois volitans
Zebraperch: Hermosilla azurea
Zebras: Equus africanus, Equus ferus, Equus zebra hartmannae
Zebratail Blenny: Hypleurochilus caudovittatus
Zebratail Lizard: Callisaurus draconoides
Zebrette Goby: Elacatinus zebrellus
Zela Metalmark: Emesis zela
Zeledon's Manakin: Pipra pipra
Zelinda's Parrotfish: Scarus zelindae
Zelphanta 88: Callicore hystaspes zelphanta
Zelwan: Trachinotus goodei
Zempoaltepec: Peromyscus melanocarpus
Zempoaltepec Deer Mouse: Peromyscus melanocarpus
Zempoaltepec Vole: Microtus umbrosus
Zena Sombermark: Euselasia zena
Zenaida Dove: Zenaida aurita, Zenaida aurita aurita, Zenaida aurita zenaida
Zenker's Flying Squirrel: Idiurus zenkeri
Zenker's Fruit Bat: Scotonycteris zenkeri
Zenker's Honeyguide: Melignomon zenkeri
Zephyr: Polygonia gracilis zephyrus
Zephyr Comma: Polygonia zephyrus
Zephyr Eyed Silkmoth: Automeris zephyria
Zeravshan Dace: Leuciscus lehmanni
Zerene Fritillary: Speyeria zerene, Speyeria zerene garretti, Speyeria zerene puntareyes, Speyeria zerene sonomensis
Zestos Skipper: Epargyreus zestos
Zetides Swallowtail: Battus zetides
Zhou's Box Turtle: Cuora zhoui
Zhungarian Ide: Clanculus miniabus, Leuciscus merzbacheri
Ziege: Pelecus cultratus
Ziegler's Triplefin: Enneapterygius ziegleri
Zig Zag Oyster: Lopha folium
Zig-Zag Eel: Mastacembelus armatus
zig-Zag Salamander: Plethodon dorsalis, Plethodon dorsalis angusticlavius, Plethodon dorsalis dorsalis
Zig-Zag Wrasse: Halichoeres prosopeion
Zigzag Barb: Barbus miolepis, Barbus miolepis miolepis
Zigzag Blackwater Caddisfly: Agarodes ziczac
Zigzag Darner: Aeshna sitchensis
Zigzag Eel: Mastacembelus armatus
Zigzag Heron: Zebrilus undulatus
zigzag Salamander: Plethodon dorsalis, Plethodon dorsalis angusticlavius, Plethodon dorsalis dorsalis
Zigzag Sandwrasse: Halichoeres scapularis
Zigzag Scallop: Euvola ziczac, Pecten ziczac
Zigzag Wrasse: Halichoeres scapularis
Zigzaz Rainbowfish: Halichoeres scapularis
Zill's Tilapia: Tilapia zillii
Zilpa Longtail: Chioides zilpa
Zimmer's Shrew: Crocidura zimmeri
Zimmer's Tody-Tyrant: Hemitriccus minimus
Zimmerman Pine Moth: Dioryctria zimmermani
Zimmermann's Shrew: Crocidura zimmermanni
Zingel: Zingel zingel
Zinken's Tiger: Parantica albata
Zino's Petrel: Pterodroma madeira
Zinser's Pocket Gopher: Pappogeomys zinseri
Zion Cliffbush: Jamesia americana var. zionis N. & P. Holmgren
Zipper Sand Skate: Austrofusus taitae, Psammobatis extenta
Zipper Sandskate: Psammobatis extenta
Zippered Pompano: Campogramma glaycos
Zirahuen Allotica: Allotoca meeki
Zoanimir's Blenny: Parablennius zvonimiri
Zoanthid: Epizoanthus scotinus
Zoe Waterfall Damsel: Paraphlebia Zoe
Zona: Bedotia geayi, Bedotia geayi, Bedotia madagascariensis, Rheocles lateralis, Rheocles pellegrini, Rheocles sikorae, Rheocles wrightae
Zonalis Eyemark: Mesosemia zonalis
Zone-Tailed Hawk: Buteo albonotatus
Zoned Pygmy Goby: Eviota zonura
Zonetail Butterfly Ray: Aetoplatea zonura
Zonipectis Moray: Gymnothorax zonipectis
Zonitis Atripennis: Zonitis atripennis
Zonitis Sayi: Zonitis sayi
Zope: Ballerus ballerus
Zorilla: Ictonyx libyca, Ictonyx striatus
Zorro Thresher Shark: Alopias vulpinus
Zostera Shrimp: Hippolyte zostericola
Zucchini Catfish: Isorineloricaria spinosissima
Zugmayer's Pearleye: Benthalbella infans
Zulia Toad Headed Sideneck: Phrynops zuliae
Zulia Toad-Headed Turtle: Phrynops zuliae
Zulu Damsel: Neoglyphidodon melas
Zulu Golden Mole: Amblysomus hottentotus, Amblysomus hottentotus iris
Zulu Snakelet: Halimuraena shakai
Zululand Dwarf Chamaeleon: Bradypodion nemorale
Zumpt's South African Cape-vulture Argasid: Argas zumpti
Zuni Bluehead Sucker: Catostomus discobolus yarrowi
Zuniga's Dark Rice Rat: Melanomys zunigae
Zunilda Emperor: Doxocopa zunilda
Zwerg: Sepiola affinis, Sepiola atlantica, Sepiola aurantiaca, Sepiola birostrata, Sepiola intermedia, Sepiola knudseni, Sepiola ligulata, Sepiola parva, Sepiola robusta, Sepiola rondeleti, Sepiola rossiaeformis, Sepiola steenstrupiana, Sepiola trirostrata
Zyantc Band-Winged Grasshopper: Trimerotropis infantilis
Zygia Lemmark: Lemonias zygia
Zygophyllacea Scale: Epidiaspis zygophylli
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