- A relatively wide magnetic tape used to record visual images and associated sound for subsequent playback or broadcasting.
- A recording made on such a tape.
To make a videotape recording of.
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How is videotape made?
Background
Videotape is an integral component of the video technology that has profoundly impacted the media and home entertainment industries. First controlled by the television industry, videotape and video technology are now widely available to the private sector and have led to significant changes in the way that information is distributed and entertainment is created.
Videotape is all about magnetic recording. First introduced commercially in 1956, magnetic recording was a relatively new technology. Videotape and all other forms of recording tape are the same in that they are magnetic. Videotape, in fact, is very similar in composition to audiotape. Most videotapes consist of a layer of tiny magnetic particles applied to Mylar, a strong, flexible plastic material. About a billion magnetic particles cover a square inch of tape and function like microscopic bar magnets. When the tape passes over an electromagnet, information is recorded and played back.
The magnetic particles are the most important part of the tape, as they are responsible for picking up and carrying the video signal. Particle size, composition, density, and distribution determine the quality of a tape. During the manufacturing process, the particles are arranged in the tape's coating. During the recording process, video heads arrange the particles into patterns dictated by the changing voltage of the video signal. When the tape is played back, the patterns are picked up by a playback head and become the video image.
History
The first video recording tapes were rust covered with paper backing. The first video recording machines recorded signals on a thin metal wire. When it was discovered that magnetic videotape produced better results, magnetic recorders were built. Some of the early machines used small electromagnets that magnetized iron alloy wire as it passed between spools while crossing over the electromagnet.
Magnetic tape proved easier to work with because it does not curl or bend like wire, At first, metal oxides like iron were powdered and applied to the tape. Magnetic particles in early videotapes were relatively large. While this made the manufacturing process easier, the size of the particles limited the effectiveness of the tapes. Later, cobalt was added to particles to improve their magnetic properties.
When researchers explored ways to reduce the size of the particles, they discovered that smaller particles resulted in a better tape. However, smaller particles proved more difficult to disperse in the binding material during the manufacturing process. Binding material is a liquid mix of ingredients that later harden and give structure to the magnetic layer of the tape. Researchers later focused on better binder formulations and application techniques and significantly improved videotape quality.
In 1951, Bing Crosby Enterprises conducted one of the first demonstrations of magnetic videotape recording. However, the poor speed of the first videotape made it commercially impractical. Still, the benefits of videotapes were immediately recognized. Potential advantages included improved broadcast quality, reusable tapes and less expensive production costs.
In 1956, the Ampex company introduced the first practical videotape machine. This first model was a large reel-to-reel machine that used four record heads and two-inch wide tape. Obviously, this invention attracted the interest of the television broadcasting industry and, on November 30, 1956, CBS became the first network to broadcast a program using videotape.
A major innovation was introduced in 1969, when Sony presented its EIAJ-standard, three-quarter-inch U-Matic series, the first videocassette system to become widely accepted. The videocassette was a vast improvement on the reel-to-reel format and had a profound effect on the video field.
In the early 1980s, Sony became the first company to establish a consumer market for the videocassette system with its Betamax format. Other manufactures soon followed, and the VHS system introduced by JVC, with its 0.5-in (1.3 cm) tape, soon dominated and continues to dominate the market. In 1984, Kodak and General Electric introduced the eight-millimeter video recorder, or camcorder. In 1995 digital videotape was introduced. Digital recording resulted in less background noise and less degradation of picture and sound quality.
The introduction of digital tape coupled with the emergence of the Digital Video Disc (DVD), led many to believe the days of the standard videocassettes were numbered. However, in 2001, it was estimated that 90% of households had VCRs while only 10% had DVD players. With new advances in tape manufacturing, as well as a consumer preference for videotapes, it seems it will take a long time for videotape to go the way of the dinosaur.
Raw Materials
Today's magnetic tape is composed of three main layers: the base film, the magnetic layer, and the back coating. The base film provides the physical support and main strength of the tape. Base film consists mostly of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) because it is durable and resistant to stretching. The magnetic layer determines the tape's magnetic properties. It is composed of magnetic powders, ranging from lower strength iron oxides to high-energy metal particles, that determine the tape's magnetic properties; binders that provide structure to the layer, including polymers, adhesives, lubricants, cleaners, solvents, dispersion agents and static controlling compounds; additives, such as carbon black, that enhance tape properties; and lubricants, that decrease friction and wear. The back coating, which is made up of lubricants, enhances the tape's durability and performance.
Design
No two tape manufacturers employ the exact same videotape manufacturing process. Each manufacturer uses its own materials and variations on the process to gain an edge over competitors. However, the basic manufacturing process is the same for all companies. Essentially, manufacturing videotape involves taking a roll of clear plastic sheeting, painting it with a mixture of binding material and magnetic particles, baking it in an oven until this "paint" dries, and cutting the wide plastic roll into thin strips that are wound onto reels. The magnetic particles that coat a videotape are needle-shaped. This allows them to be tightly packed onto the tape surface. The greater the magnetic density, the better the tape. The best tapes use smaller particles packed in greater concentration.
The Manufacturing
Process
The manufacturing process, according to Sony, one of the major videotape producers, is a multi-stage process that includes mixing, coating, calendaring, slitting, and finishing.
- The first step, mixing, involves creating the magnetic layer, or "paint," that will coat a tape. The magnetic powder is first pre-mixed with solvents and dispersants, typically polyurethane, that keep the powder from floating on top of the solvent. The mixing process starts with the powder being dispersed by large planetary mixers in large, metal tanks. When the magnetic material is dispersed, the binders, additives, and lubricants are added and mixed. The paint is then passed automatically onto the milling stage, when it is milled, or rolled, by large rollers. This creates a shearing action that prevents agglomerations from forming in the paint.
- In the second step, the coating stage, the magnetic paint is applied to the base film in a continuous process that starts when large rolls of the base film are fed into a machine called a coater. The coater is 120 ft (36.6 m) long and uses 400 kw of power. The film is drawn by six motors through the coater at low tension. At the start of the process, the tape enters the head end of the coater, which is called the un-wind end. New rolls are automatically spliced on when the coater senses the end of a roll. A mechanical device called a flying splice attaches the new roll of base film, cutting off the end of the old, while the rolls are in motion. (The device is called a flying splice because the splice can be made "on the fly" while the process continues operating.)The coater heads stops painting the film until the new splice goes through.
- The coater head applies the magnetic layer to the base film. Computers monitor and control the process, so that a thin, even layer of magnetic paint can be applied without defects. The thin layers are measured in submicrons, or millionths of a meter. The coating method most often used is called extrusion. In this process, the paint is applied to the film as it is blown out, by pressure, through a small opening. As the base film passes over the extruded paint, the paint sticks to the surface of the base film in a smooth layer.
- After coating, the still-wet tape is automatically passed through a strong magnetic field which physically orients the magnetic material in a newly coated layer. At first, the particles are randomly arranged on the binder. As the physical alignment is important for the most effective magnetic recording, the particles are then oriented in the same direction. This is accomplished by passing the tape through the magnetic field as the binder hardens. The more uniform the dispersion and orientation of the particles, the better the tape will perform. The magnetic layer is now ready to be dried.
- Drying fixes the now-oriented particles before they can change position. During drying, solvents used for mixing are evaporated and recovered. The tape's magnetic layer is stabilized. When the drying is complete, the tape passes through an X-ray scanner that checks the evenness of the newly applied layer.
- After the drying and scanning, the tape is wound back onto large rolls measuring up to 4 ft (1.2 m) in width and over a 1,000 ft (305 m) long. Like the flying splice that started the process, a slit is made in the tape and the new roll automatically starts windup. The tension of the tape is held steady during coating. As the newly wound roll gradually increases in size, the speed of the wind is gradually decreased to keep the tension even from start to finish.
- The third step involves a process called calendaring. At this point, the space between the magnetic particles has not completely set. Therefore, it is possible to minimize this space by the calendaring process, which involves compacting the layer that has just been formed between steel rollers and elastic rollers. This increases the packing density of the magnetic particles to maximize the tape's magnetic density, and it smoothes the surface of the magnetic layer, which provides better tape-to-head contact. During the process the tape is automatically fed through a series of the rollers. The steel rollers make contact with the tape's magnetic side and the elastic rollers make contact with the back of the tape, a method that creates an even pressure across the film. After this process, the tape's final surface characteristics and thickness are set. The tape is now ready to be slit.
- Before being loaded into cassettes, the tapes are slit to the width determined by its format. Commonly used tape formats include 0.5 in (1.3 cm), 0.75 in (1.9 cm), or 1 in (2.5 cm). The tape is spliced onto a slitter comprised of two sets of blades. As the tape is drawn through the slitter, the blades cut the tape into the desired width. The slitting is a very precise process and it is critical to the quality of the tapes. The process is usually monitored by lasers to detect defects such as folds or pinholes. The tape is slit within microns of the desired width to insure smooth operation in a VCR or camcorder. A poorly slit edge can shed oxide, base film and back-coated particles. After the tape is slit, it passes over a cleaning wipe that removes any debris accumulated during the process. The tape is then wound onto long "pancake" rolls, which resemble rolls of movie film. The tape is now ready for the finishing stage, when it will be loaded into cassettes.
- In the finishing stage, the tape cassettes are produced. The cassette shells themselves are created from melted plastics that are placed in a metal cavity, or mold, and formed into the top and bottom halves of the shells. These halves are held together by five screws. Components of the videocassette shells include two spools that hold the tape itself; a moving, spring-loaded door that houses the tape safely inside the shell; stainless steel pins and rollers that protect the tape itself against scratches; low-friction rollers that guide the tape during recording or playback; anti-static leader that prevents buildup of dust; and two, spring-loaded locks that prevent the tape from rolling around inside the shell. The empty cassette shells have hubs with leader attached. The leader is automatically spliced to the pancake rolls, which are placed on an in-cassette loading machine that spools a measured amount of tape into the cassette. Next, the loaded cassettes are assembled with packing inserts and placed in protective sleeves. Finally, the cassettes are packaged and boxed for shipment.
Byproducts/Waste
At some manufacturing plants, during production, the solvent used in the coating process is recovered and purified and then used again in the manufacture of more tapes. The solvents are evaporated in dryers that use air currents. This creates a mixture of air and solvent that is carried through pipes to a solvent recovery station. At this station, the solvent and air are separated. The solvent is then distilled and stored for use.
Quality Control
Generally, quality control is continuous throughout the manufacturing process.
Computers, x rays, and lasers are used to monitor various stages. Ingredients are also tested. At Sony, before the manufacturing begins, ingredients are checked by the quality control lab against specifications in the tape's formulation. Oxide and metal particles are checked for evenness and size. Magnetic "footprints" are tested to make sure they conform to magnetic characteristics. Binders and lubricants are checked for purity. The polyester base film is checked for consistency and strength.
The Future
Recent advances in technology and manufacturing are making even better tapes possible and are pointing the way to the future. By the turn of the new century, most of the tapes people have been using were oxide tapes. The active magnetic coating has been some form of oxidized metal. Tapes made with coatings of pure metal, or metal evaporated tape, have proven superior. In making metal evaporated tape, manufactures employ a different process to deposit magnetic particles. Instead of the magnetic particles being carried in a binder and painted onto the tape, they are vaporized from a solid and deposited onto base film. An electronic beam heats metal to thousands of degrees inside a vacuum chamber. The metal then vaporizes and adheres to a specially prepared base film. A protective coating is applied to this magnetic layer. The result is a smooth, thin, densely packed film of pure magnetic particles. Because no binder is used, the particles mesh with a density that approaches solid metal. The Sony corporation led the way with this new process with its Advanced Metal Evaporated, or AME, process. This kind of tape represents a relatively new technology, and its full potentials await to be tapped.
Where to Learn More
Books
Alldrin, L., et al. The Computer Videomaker Handbook. 2nd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2001.
Nmungwun, A. Video Recording Technology: Its Impact on Media and Home Entertainment. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989.
Heller, N., and T. Bentz. The Great Tape Debate: Evolution of the New Video Format. New York: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1987.
Other
Stoffel, T. Videotape Systems Theory Web Page. December 2001. <http://www.lionlmb.org/quad/theory.html>.
MTC-Open.net Web Page. December 2001. <http://www.mtc-open.net>.
[Article by: Dan Harvey]
Computer Desktop Encyclopedia:
videotape
A magnetic tape used for recording full-animation video images. The most widely used videotape format is the 1/2" VHS cassette. VHS made earlier videotape formats obsolete for entertainment and training. See VHS.
Marketing Dictionary:
videotape
20 magnetic tape used for the recording of television programs and commercials. There is often controversy over the use of videotape versus film, but usage is really a matter of personal taste. Videotape can be played back immediately after shooting and is easier to edit. Theoretically, a videotape commercial can be shot one day and be on the air the next. This is particularly beneficial to retailers who plan their advertising with very little advance notice and whose advertised products change very frequently.
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
videotape
For more information on videotape, visit Britannica.com.
Word Tutor:
videotape
IN BRIEF: A strip on which both the sound and picture signals of a TV program can be recorded.
We bought a videotape of our all-time favorite movie.
Wikipedia:
videotape
This article is about the video media. For the Radiohead song, see Videotape (song).
Videotape is a means of recording images and sound onto magnetic tape as opposed to movie film. In most cases, a helical scan video head rotates against the moving tape to record the data in two dimensions, because video signals have a very high bandwidth, and static heads would require extremely high tape speeds. Video tape is used in both video tape recorders (VTRs or, more common, video cassette recorders (VCRs) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method of storing information, and since nearly all video recordings made nowadays are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random access methods of storing digital video data are becoming more common.
History
Open reel
The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosby's production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE) gave the world's first demonstration of a videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device gave what were described as "blurred and indistinct" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (0.6 cm) audio tape moving at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second.[1] A year later, an improved version, using one-inch (2.6 cm) magnetic tape, was shown to the press, who reportedly expressed amazement at the quality of the images, although they had a "persistent grainy quality that looked like a worn motion picture." Overall, the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film.[2] Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a commercial version available in 1954, but none came forth.[3] BCE demonstrated a color model in February 1955, using a longitudinal recording on half-inch (1.3 cm) tape, essentially similar to what RCA had demonstrated in 1953 (see below). CBS, RCA's competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system (see below).[4]
RCA demonstrated the magnetic tape recording of both black-and-white and color programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1, 1953.[5] The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record and playback only a few minutes of a program. The color system used half-inch (1.3 cm) tape to record five tracks—one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch (1.9 cm) tape with two tracks, one for picture and one for sound. Both systems ran at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second.[6] RCA-owned NBC first used it on the The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23, 1956, when a pre-recorded song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live program.[7]
The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA, but this was ultimately unfeasible. It utilized 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) tape traveling at 200 inches (5.08 m) per second.
The first practical professional videotape machines were the Quadruplex machines introduced by Ampex in the United States on April 14, 1956. Quad employed a transverse (scanning the tape across its width) four-head system on a two-inch (5.08 cm) tape, and linear heads for the soundtrack. CBS first used the Ampex Mark IV at its Television City studios in Hollywood on November 30, 1956 to play a delayed broadcast of Douglas Edwards and the News from New York to the Pacific Time Zone.[8]
Although Quad became the industry standard for 20 years, it had drawbacks such as an inability to freeze pictures, no picture search, and in early machines, a tape could only reliably be played back using the same set of hand-made tape heads, which wore out very quickly. Despite these problems, Quad could produce excellent images. Unfortunately, very few early videotapes still exist. The high cost of early videotapes meant that most broadcasters erased and reused them, and (in the United States) regarded videotape as simply a better and more cost-effective means of time-delaying broadcasts than the previous kinescope technology, which recorded television pictures onto photographic film. It was the four time zones of the continental United States which had made the system very desirable in the first place. However, some early broadcast videotapes have survived, including The Edsel Show, broadcast live in 1957, and 1958's An Evening With Fred Astaire, the oldest color videotape of an entertainment program known to exist (the oldest color videotape is the May 1958 dedication of the WRC-TV studios in Washington, DC). In 1976, NBC's 50th anniversary special included an excerpt from a 1957 color special starring Donald O'Connor; despite some obvious technical problems, the color tape was remarkably good. Subsequent videotape systems have used helical scan, where the video heads record diagonal tracks (of complete fields) on to the tape.
The next format to gain widespread usage was the 1" (2.54 cm) Type C format from 1976 onward. It introduced features such as shuttling and still framing, but the sound and picture reproduction attainable on the format were of just slightly lower quality than Quad (although 1" Type C's quality was still quite high). However, unlike Quad, 1" Type C machines required much less maintenance, took up less space, and consumed much less electrical power.
In Europe a similar tape format was developed, called Type B. Type B machines (also known as BCN) used the same 1" tape as Type C but they lacked C's shuttle and slow-motion options. The picture quality was slightly better, though. Type B was the broadcast norm in continental Europe for most of the 1980s.
The first video cassettes
Then, in 1969, Sony introduced a prototype for the first widespread video cassette, the 3/4" (1.905 cm) composite U-matic system, which Sony introduced commercially in September 1971 after working out industry standards with other manufacturers. Sony later refined it to Broadcast Video U-matic or BVU. Sony continued its hold on the professional market with its ever-expanding 1/2" (1.27 cm) component video Betacam family (introduced in 1982), which, in its digital variants, is still among the professional market leaders. Panasonic had some limited success with its MII system, but never could compare to Betacam in terms of market share.
Home VCRs
The first domestic videocassette recorders were launched in 1971 (based around U-matic technology), but it was not until Sony's Betamax (1975) and JVC's VHS (1976) were launched that videotape moved into the mass market, resulting in what came to be known as the "videotape format war", which VHS finally won. VHS is still the leading consumer VCR format, since its follow-ups S-VHS and D-VHS never caught up on popularity. It has, however, been displaced in the prerecorded video market by the nonlinear and disc based DVD, although like vinyl records may not become completely obsolete owing to the large number of videocassettes owned by consumers.
The size of a standard VHS tape cassette is 1" x 4" x 7 1/2". Following in the footsteps of standard VHS came other consumer videotape formats such as 8mm video, Hi8, and digital 8, VHS-C (compact) and S-VHS-C.
Going digital
The next step was the digital revolution. Among the first digital video formats Sony's D-1, which featured uncompressed digital component recording. Because D-1 was extremely expensive, the composite D-2 and D-3 (by Sony and Panasonic, respectively) were introduced soon after. Ampex introduced the first compressed component recording with its Ampex DCT series in 1992. Panasonic trumped D-1 with its D-5 format, which was uncompressed as well, but much more affordable.
Consumer videotape options expanded to include digital in 1996 with the debut of the DV standard, which has become widely used both in its native form and in more robust forms such as Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO as an acquisition and editing format. However, due to concerns by the entertainment industry about the format's lack of copy protection, only the smaller MiniDV cassettes used with camcorders became commonplace, with the full-sized DV cassettes restricted entirely to professional applications.
For camcorders, Sony adapted the Betacam system with its Digital Betacam format, later following it up with the more low-cost Betacam SX and MPEG IMX formats, and the semiprofessional DV-based DVCAM system. Panasonic used its DV variant DVCPRO for all professional cameras, with the higher end format DVCPRO50 being a direct descendant. JVC developed the competing D9/Digital-S format, which compresses video data in a way similar to DVCPRO but uses a cassette similar to S-VHS media.
High definition
The introduction of HDTV production necessitated a medium for storing high-resolution video information. In 1997, Sony bumped its Betacam series up to HD with the HDCAM standard and its higher-end cousin HDCAM SR. Panasonic's competing format for cameras was based on DVCPRO and called DVCPRO HD. For VTR and archive use, Panasonic expanded the D-5 specification to store compressed HD streams and called it D-5 HD.
Camcorders
In camcorders, however, the field has generally been more diverse; early camcorders generally took full-sized VHS or Betamax tapes, but the greatest popularity for some time shared by the 8 mm video format (later replaced by Hi8 and Digital8) and VHS-C (later replaced by Super VHS-C) tape. MiniDV is now the most popular format for tape-based consumer camcorders, providing near-broadcast quality video and sophisticated nonlinear editing capability on consumer equipment; however, though intended as a digital successor to VHS, MiniDV VCRs are not widely available outside professional circles. Sony tried to introduce a new camcorder tape with MicroMV, but consumer interest was low due to the proprietary nature of the format and limited support for anything but low-end Windows video editors, and Sony shipped the last MicroMV unit in 2005. For high definition, the most promising system seems to be HDV, which uses MiniDV media to store a roughly broadcast-quality HDTV data stream.
There has been a trend, largely spearheaded by Hitachi, Panasonic, and Sony, to sell consumer camcorders based on optical discs rather than tape. Most common are DVD recordable camcorders, which are common among point and shoot users due to the ability to take a disc out of the camcorder and drop it directly into a DVD player, much like VHS-C on the analog side. However, professionals consider DVD media to be too inflexible for easy editing, and Sony's ultra-high-end XDCAM system, using Sony's Professional Disc for Data system, is designed for easier editing than DVD media.
References
- ^ "Tape Recording Used by Filmless 'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12, 1951, p. 21. Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN 0-070-41275-8
- ^ "Tape-Recorded TV Nears Perfection," New York Times, Dec. 31, 1952, p. 10.
- ^ "New Deal on TV Seen at Parley," New York Times, May 1, 1953, p. 30.
- ^ Daniel et al., p. 148. BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956.
- ^ "Magnetic Tape Used By RCA to Photograph Television Program," The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 2, 1953, p. 1.
- ^ Stewart Wolpin, The Race to Video, Invention & Technology, Fall 1994.
- ^ Ed Reitan, RCA-NBC Firsts in Color Television (commented).
- ^ Ampex Corporation, Ampex Chronology.
See also
External links
- The Loss of Early Video Recordings
- History of Recording Technology (WayBack Machine)
- History of Magnetic Tape (WayBack Machine)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
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Translations:
Translations for:
Videotape
Dansk (Danish)
n. - videobånd
v. tr. - optage på videobånd
Nederlands (Dutch)
(opname op) videoband, opnemen op video
Français (French)
n. - bande vidéo
v. tr. - enregistrer (qch) en vidéo
Deutsch (German)
n. - Videoband
v. - auf Videoband aufnehmen
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (τεχνολ.) βιντεοταινία
v. - βιντεοσκοπώ
Italiano (Italian)
videonastro, nastro video, registrare su videonastro, videoregistrare
Português (Portuguese)
n. - fita de vídeo
v. - gravar em fita de vídeo
Русский (Russian)
записывать изображение и звук на магнитную ленту, магнитная лента
Español (Spanish)
n. - cinta magnetofónica, cinta televisual, video
v. tr. - videograbar, grabar en video
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - videoband
v. - filma med videokamera
中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
录像带, 将录到带子上
中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 錄影帶
v. tr. - 將錄到帶子上
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 비디오 테이프, 비디오 테이프 녹화
v. tr. - 비디오 테이프에 녹화하다
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ビデオテープ
v. - ビデオテープに録画する
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) شريط تسجيل تلفزيوني (فعل) مسجل بواسطه مسجل الصور التلفزيونيه
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - וידאו(טייפ) - מכשיר סרט מגנטי להקלטת שידור טלוויזיה, קלטת וידאו, הקלטתת וידאו
v. tr. - הקליט במכשיר וידאו
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