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Russification is a adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute.

1 answer


Both Russification and Nationalism are a love for one's country but Russification forced people who were non-russian to adopt the russian languge, religion and culture where as nationalism is not enforced.

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Russification has been a Russian policy of attempting to integrate and assimilate non-Slavic communities during Imperial, Soviet, and modern times. Russification involves creating it as an official language, secularization, and changing names to Slavic patronymic and family name ending conventions. Opposing factors to Russification continue in the form of it being seen as attempts to eradicate national, tribal and religious identity. Russification forms a core to the conflict of claims to Caucuses, and to the higher issue of Islam in Russia.

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The purpose of Russification was to unite all Soviet ruled countries under a single heritage to produce solidarity. It was an attempt at assimilating all people into the Russian culture to create an "us versus them" mentality.

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Russification pressured all ethnic groups to unite as Russians, but self-determination gave different ethnic groups the right to govern themselves.

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Russification was most intense in regions such as Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These areas were targeted by the Russian Empire to suppress local cultures and promote Russian language and customs.

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Russification, the policy of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union to impose Russian culture on non-Russian peoples, had mixed results. While it succeeded in promoting the use of the Russian language and customs, it also generated resistance and resentment among minority groups, leading to tensions and conflicts. Ultimately, the long-term impact of Russification varied depending on the specific context and region.

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it isn't. for some people it was bad but for others it was good. it helped the russian empire progress in its develpoment

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Advantages of Russification include promoting unity and stability within a diverse population, as well as fostering a sense of belonging to a larger entity. Disadvantages include erasing cultural diversity, suppressing local languages and traditions, and breeding resentment among minority groups.

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Policies like russification aim to suppress local cultures and languages in favor of Russian influence, leading to resentment among affected populations. This suppression can fuel a sense of national identity and solidarity as people seek to preserve their own culture and resist external domination, resulting in increased nationalism.

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The policy of Russification aimed to assimilate non-Russian peoples into Russian culture and language. However, it often led to increased resistance and resentment among the minority groups, fostering a stronger sense of national identity and fueling nationalist movements. This ultimately undermined the unity and stability of the Russian Empire.

1 answer


I'm only an AS student so please don't attack me if I'm not 100% right, k :) (by the way its Spelt Russification so that might be limiting your finds)

Russification was the policy put into place by Alexander III, he wanted Russia to be united under one language and religion, Non-Russians such as Poles, Jews or Finns (and many other national minorities) were forced to adopt the Russian language and accept the religion of the Russian Orthadox Church.

Russification was also an attempt by Alexander III's government to restrict the influence of the national minorities within the Russian Empire. Sources : Reactions & Revolutions: Russia 1881-1924 Michael Lynch second edition

1 answer


targeted the empire's non-Russian population

emphasized the use of the Russian language

2 answers


Theodore R. Weeks has written:

'Nation and state in late Imperial Russia' -- subject(s): History, Nationalism, Ethnic relations, Russification, Minorities

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Lukas Allemann has written:

'Die Samen der Kola-Halbinsel' -- subject(s): Social life and customs, Interviews, Ethnic relations, Minorities, Economic conditions, Russification, Sami (European people), Biography, History

1 answer


Ranguelov regards one of any number of Eurasian nationalities that were Russified at one time in history. Russification involved changing their name structures to allow for patronymic and family names with the endings of -of, -ova, ic, evna, and so on.

1 answer


David Ward MacFadyen has written:

'Russian culture in Uzbekistan' -- subject(s): Civilization, Nationalism, Political aspects of Uzbek language, Political aspects, Political aspects of Russian language, Russian language, Russification, Uzbek language

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A Tsar (Царь in Russian)(Tzar, Csar or Czar) was the emperor of Russia until the 1917 February Revolution. Tsar is a Russification of the Roman word Caesar.

The first Russian emperor to use the title was Tsar Ivan III (the Great). By the time the Romanovs came to power, it had become the standard title applied to the Russian head of state.
male monarch or emperor

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Yes, he was. He firmly believed that the Russian peoples were superior to the other races and nationalities within the Soviet Union. Even Lenin resented Stalin's opinion in this regard. Stalin's racism was formalized in his policy of "Russification," whereby he intended to place only Russians in places of authority wherever possible.

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Russian rulers have had many and varied titles since Rurik established the Russian state.

Grand Duke or Grand Prince were both common titles.

Ivan III (the Great) was the first to use the title Tsar (Tzar, Csar or Czar), a Russification of the Roman word Caesar.

By the time the Romanovs had come to power, it was the standard title applied to all Russian rulers.

4 answers


Yaroslav Bilinsky is the author of the book "Endgame for the West in Afghanistan? Explaining the Decline in Support for the War in Afghanistan in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, France, and Germany." He has also written extensively on political science topics related to Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.

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No. Both are eastern Slavic languages. While there are similarities between the languages, they are distinct.

In many parts of Ukraine Russian, or a Russian-Ukrainian creole called "surzhyk", is spoken. This stems from the fact that after the depopulation of Eastern Ukraine by the Soviet state-sponsored Famine-Genocide (Holodomor) of 1932-33, many areas were repopulated by the with ethnic Russians. Additionally, there was an official Russification program both under the czars (Ems Ukase) and under the Soviets, which at times banned the use of the Ukrainian language, and generally discouraged its use.

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Lubomyr Roman Wynar has written:

'Guide to reference materials in political science' -- subject(s): Bibliography, Social sciences

'Syluety epokh' -- subject(s): Historiography, History, Zaporozhians

'Mykhailo Hrushevsky' -- subject(s): Historiography, Russification

'Guide to the American ethnic press' -- subject(s): Directories, East European American newspapers, East European American periodicals, Slavic American newspapers, Slavic American periodicals

'Ethnic, nationality, and foreign-language broadcasting and telecasting in Ohio' -- subject(s): Ethnic radio broadcasting, Ethnic television broadcasting

'History of early Ukrainian printing, 1491-1600' -- subject(s): History, Ukrainian Painting

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Tatiana (usually Americanized and pronounced as TAH-Shawna) Though (Tatty-anna) is also correct, Tah-Shawna sound better, particularily with the Russian Role call of Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia! Tatiana to most people is the second Grand Duchess of the Romanov family daughter of Nicolai II and Alexandra. Tatiana was born in l897 and died in the massacre in l9l8. There used to be a Russian Blue cat in out neighborhood (hung out around fences, rather appropriately!)- Iron Curtain!and we used to call her Tatiana, pronounced as I have indicated. of course Tat as a nickname for cat is obvious. The name is believed to be a Russification of Titania, who was not Giant-sized (nothing Titanic about it!) but wasz the queen of the fairies in some mythologies. Tatiana, is of course,. a saint in Russian Orthodoxy. I am not aware of Fatima Ali, mayb be related to the Boxer MUhammad Ali. if that is up your alley!

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Stalin's emphasis on Russian patriotism did diverge from traditional Marxist views, which prioritize international solidarity among workers. His promotion of Russian nationalism at times went against the spirit of Marxist internationalism, leading to criticism from some Marxist thinkers.

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Poles and Russians are old long-term enemies who have fought a number of wars over the last 1000 years. Poland and Russia fought a number of battles and skirmishes in the 13th to 16th centuries and Russia participated in the three partitions of Poland which resulted in Poland disapering from the map of Europe in 1795.

When Poland reapeared after WW1 Soviet Russia took advantage of Poland's initial weak situation and attacked Poland resulting in a prolonged war which finished in 1920. Russia attacked Poland again on 17 September 1939 as part of the Nazi-Soviet pack against Poland which started WW2.

Russia has committed a number of attrocitied against Polish nationals including the 1940 Katyn messacre of over 20,000 Polish officers and intellectuals which was designed to wipe out Polish national identy and facilite Russification of Polish population occupied by the Russians during WW2.

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Finland was formerly part of a larger Sweden, it became independent due to the interference of Russia. Russia took the Eastern part of Sweden (Finland) and set it up as a buffer against various imperialists. Russia tried to make Finland more Russian by the process known as Russification. The interference annoyed the Finns and the Swedes who remained in Finland and they finally sought to establish Finland as an independent nation.

In the early days of World War II in Europe the Hitler/Stalin nonaggression pact gave Russia the ability to invade Poland without worrying about Germany. They took the opportunity to invade Finland in what became known as "The Winter War." The Russians boasted that they would roll over Finland as the Germans had rolled over the Poles in a Blitzkrieg or Lightening War.

Unfortunately for them the Finns had other ideas and the invasion bogged down and slogged into the Winter.

The Russian goal was a buffer against Northern incursions, particularly as regards Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In the end the Finns signed a peace treaty with Russian ceding certain land that satisfied the Russian goals.

When Germany broke the nonaggression pact with Stalin's Russia and the Soviet Union the Finns again went to war with Russia to reclaim their lost territory in what is called "The Continuation War," as in a continuation of the Winter War.

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Poles and Russians are old long-term enemies who have fought a number of wars over the last 1000 years. Poland and Russia fought a number of battles and skirmishes in the 13th to 16th centuries and Russia participated in the three partitions of Poland which resulted in Poland disapering from the map of Europe in 1795. When Poland reapeared after WW1 Soviet Russia took advantage of Poland's initial weak situation and attacked Poland resulting in a prolonged war which finished in 1920. Russia attacked Poland again on 17 September 1939 as part of the Nazi-Soviet pack against Poland which started WW2. Russia has committed a number of attrocitied against Polish nationals including the 1940 Katyn messacre of over 20,000 Polish officers and intellectuals which was designed to wipe out Polish national identy and facilite Russification of Polish population occupied by the Russians during WW2.

3 answers


Words that rhyme with CITATION

2 syllable words

haitian, nation, ration, station

3 syllable words

alsatian, carnation, castration, causation, cessation, cetacean, claymation, creation, cremation, croatian, crustacean, dalmatian, damnation, deflation, dictation, dilation, donation, duration, elation, filtration, fixation, flirtation, flotation, formation, foundation, frustration, gestation, gradation, gyration, horatian, hydration, inflation, lactation, libration, ligation, location, migration, mutation, narration, negation, nitration, notation, optation, oration, ovation, plantation, privation, probation, proration, prostration, quotation, reflation, relation, rotation, salvation, sarmatian, sedation, sensation, stagflation, stagnation, starvation, substation, summation, taxation, temptation, translation, vacation, vibration, vocation, workstation

4 syllable words

abdication, aberration, abrogation, acclimation, accusation, activation, adaptation, admiration, adoration, adulation, advocation, affectation, affirmation, affrication, aggravation, agitation, allegation, allocation, alteration, altercation, alternation, amputation, animation, annexation, annotation, appalachian, appellation, application, approbation, arbitration, aspiration, assocation, augmentation, automation, aviation, avocation, backwardation, bifurcation, calculation, calibration, cancellation, celebration, circulation, cogitation, coloration, combination, commendation, compensation, compilation, complication, computation, concentration, condemnation, condensation, confirmation, confiscation, conflagration, confrontation, congregation, conjugation, connotation, consecration, conservation, consolation, constellation, consternation, constipation, consultation, consummation, contemplation, conversation, convocation, cooperation, coronation, corp, corporation, correlation, culmination, cultivation, decimation, declaration, decoration, dedication, defamation, deformation, degradation, dehydration, delegation, demarcation, demonstration, deportation, depravation, depredation, deprivation, derivation, desecration, desiccation, designation, desolation, desperation, destination, detonation, devastation, deviation, dilatation, disinflation, dislocation, dispensation, disputation, dissertation, dissipation, distillation, divination, domination, duplication, education, elevation, elongation, emanation, embarkation, emigration, emulation, equitation, escalation, estimation, evocation, excavation, excitation, exclamation, exhalation, exhortation, exhumation, expectation, expiration, explanation, explication, exploitation, exploration, fabrication, fascination, federation, fermentation, fibrillation, figuration, fluctuation, fluoridation, foliation, formulation, fragmentation, fumigation, gastrulation, generation, germination, glaciation, graduation, granulation, gravitation, habitation, hesitation, hibernation, illustration, imitation, immigration, implantation, implication, importation, impregnation, imputation, incantation, incarnation, inclination, incrustation, incubation, indentation, indexation, indication, indignation, infestation, infiltration, inflammation, information, inhalation, innovation, inspiration, installation, instigation, insulation, integration, intimation, intonation, inundation, invitation, invocation, irrigation, irritation, isolation, jubilation, laceration, legislation, levitation, liberation, limitation, liquidation, litigation, lubrication, machination, malformation, masturbation, maturation, mediation, medication, meditation, menstruation, ministration, miscreation, miseration, mitigation, moderation, modulation, molestation, motivation, mutilation, navigation, nomination, nucleation, obfuscation, obligation, observation, occupation, operation, orchestration, ordination, oscillation, ostentation, ovulation, oxidation, pagination, palpitation, penetration, perforation, permutation, perspiration, perturbation, pigmentation, pollination, population, preparation, presentation, preservation, proclamation, procreation, profanation, propagation, protestation, provocation, publication, punctuation, radiation, realization, recantation, recitation, reclamation, recreation, reformation, refutation, registration, regulation, rehydration, relaxation, relocation, renovation, reparation, replication, reputation, reservation, resignation, respiration, restoration, retardation, revelation, revocation, rumination, sanitation, saturation, segmentation, segregation, separation, sequestration, simulation, situation, speculation, stimulation, stipulation, strangulation, subluxation, suffocation, superstation, syncopation, syndication, tabulation, termination, titillation, toleration, transformation, transplantation, transportation, trepidation, tribulation, usurpation, vaccination, vacillation, validation, valuation, variation, vegetation, ventilation, vindication, violation, visitation

5 syllable words

abbreviation, abomination, acceleration, accommodation, accreditation, accumulation, adjudication, administration, affiliation, agglomeration, alienation, alleviation, alliteration, amalgamation, amelioration, amortization, amplification, annihilation, anticipation, appreciation, appropriation, approximation, argumentation, articulation, assassination, assimilation, association, authentication, authorization, balkanization, brutalization, capitulation, centralization, certification, christianization, civilization, clarification, classification, coagulation, codification, cogeneration, cohabitation, collaboration, colonization, colorization, commemoration, communication, communization, concatenation, conciliation, confabulation, confederation, configuration, conglomeration, congratulation, consideration, consolidation, contamination, continuation, cooperation, coordination, corroboration, decaffeination, decapitation, deceleration, deforestation, degeneration, deification, deliberation, delineation, demodulation, demonization, denomination, denunciation, depreciation, deregulation, desalination, desegregation, determination, detoxication, devaluation, discoloration, discrimination, disembarkation, disinclination, disinformation, disintegration, dissemination, dissociation, documentation, domestication, dramatization, echolocation, edification, ejaculation, elaboration, elimination, emancipation, enumeration, equalization, equivocation, eradication, evacuation, evaluation, evaporation, exacerbation, exaggeration, examination, exasperation, excoriation, exfoliation, exhilaration, exoneration, expatriation, expropriation, extermination, extrapolation, facilitation, falsification, fertilization, finlandization, fortification, gasification, generalization, genetization, gentrification, globalization, glorification, gratification, hallucination, harmonization, humiliation, hybridization, hydrogenation, hyperinflation, illumination, imagination, immunization, impersonation, implementation, improvisation, inactivation, inauguration, incarceration, incineration, incorporation, incrimination, indoctrination, infatuation, inhabitation, initiation, inoculation, insemination, insinuation, instrumentation, interpretation, interrogation, intimidation, intoxication, invalidation, investigation, ionization, irradiation, islamization, justification, legalization, liberalization, localization, magnetization, magnification, manifestation, manipulation, maximization, mechanization, misallocation, misapplication, miscalculation, misinformation, mobilization, modernization, modification, multiplication, mummification, nationalization, naturalization, negotiation, neutralization, normalization, notification, nullification, optimization, organisation, organization, orientation, origination, ornamentation, ossification, pacification, panelization, participation, pasteurization, perpetuation, polarization, pontification, precipitation, predestination, prefabrication, premeditation, preoccupation, pressurization, privatisation, privatization, procrastination, prognostication, proliferation, pronunciation, purification, qualification, quantification, ramification, ratification, rationalization, reaffirmation, reallocation, recalculation, recommendation, reconfirmation, recrimination, rectification, recuperation, redecoration, rededication, reeducation, reforestation, refrigeration, regeneration, regimentation, reincarnation, reintegration, reiteration, rejuvenation, remediation, remuneration, renomination, renunciation, repatriation, representation, repudiation, reregulation, resuscitation, retaliation, revaluation, reverberation, russification, sanctification, sedimentation, simplification, socialization, solicitation, sophistication, specialization, specification, stabilization, stalinization, standardization, sterilization, subordination, subsidization, substantiation, triangulation, unification, unionization, urbanization, utilization, vaporization, verification, victimization, vilification, visualization, vulgarization, westernization

6 syllable words

acidification, alphabetization, cannibalization, capitalization, categorization, characterization, collectivization, commercialization, computerization, conceptualization, criminalization, decentralization, decertification, decontamination, dehumanization, demobilization, democratization, demoralization, desalinization, destabilization, deterioration, detoxification, differentiation, discontinuation, disorganization, disorientation, disqualification, diversification, electrification, excommunication, experimentation, generalization, homogenization, hospitalization, identification, incapacitation, incoordination, indemnification, insubordination, intensification, intercorporation, marginalization, mineralization, misappropriation, miscommunication, misinterpretation, misrepresentation, monopolization, nationalization, naturalization, nondiscrimination, nonproliferation, overpopulation, overregulation, overvaluation, personalization, personification, politicization, popularization, radicalization, rationalization, reaffiliation, reauthorization, recertification, reclassification, reconciliation, reconfiguration, reconsideration, reevaluation, reexamination, rehabilitation, reincorporation, reinterpretation, reinvigoration, renegotiation, reorganization, reunification, revitalization, saponification, securitization, self-congratulation, self-determination, self-perpetuation, singularization, suburbanization, transillumination, undervaluation

7 syllable words

americanization, antidiscrimination, decriminalization, demilitarization, denationalization, denuclearization, industrialization, miniaturization, mischaracterization, misidentification, oversimplification, recapitalization, renationalization, telecommunication

8 syllable words

internationalization

9 syllable words

deinstitutionalization

2 answers


communication

Vacation, station, temptation, salvation, renovation, deliberation, frustration.

humiliation, stimulation, motivation
simulation, generation
2 syllable words haitian, nation, ration, station 3 syllable words alsatian, carnation, castration, causation, cessation, cetacean, citation, claymation, creation, cremation, croatian, crustacean, dalmatian, damnation, deflation, dictation, dilation, donation, duration, elation, filtration, fixation, flirtation, flotation, formation, foundation, frustration, gestation, gradation, gyration, horatian, hydration, inflation, lactation, libration, ligation, location, migration, mutation, narration, negation, nitration, notation, optation, oration, ovation, plantation, privation, probation, proration, prostration, quotation, reflation, relation, rotation, salvation, sarmatian, sedation, sensation, stagflation, stagnation, starvation, substation, summation, taxation, temptation, translation, vacation, vibration, vocation, workstation 4 syllable words abdication, aberration, abrogation, acclimation, accusation, activation, adaptation, admiration, adoration, adulation, advocation, affectation, affirmation, affrication, aggravation, agitation, allegation, allocation, alteration, altercation, alternation, amputation, animation, annexation, annotation, appalachian, appellation, application, approbation, arbitration, aspiration, assocation, augmentation, automation, aviation, avocation, backwardation, bifurcation, calculation, calibration, cancellation, celebration, circulation, cogitation, coloration, combination, commendation, compensation, compilation, complication, computation, concentration, condemnation, condensation, confirmation, confiscation, conflagration, confrontation, congregation, conjugation, connotation, consecration, conservation, consolation, constellation, consternation, constipation, consultation, consummation, contemplation, conversation, convocation, cooperation, coronation, corp, corporation, correlation, culmination, cultivation, decimation, declaration, decoration, dedication, defamation, deformation, degradation, dehydration, delegation, demarcation, demonstration, deportation, depravation, depredation, deprivation, derivation, desecration, desiccation, designation, desolation, desperation, destination, detonation, devastation, deviation, dilatation, disinflation, dislocation, dispensation, disputation, dissertation, dissipation, distillation, divination, domination, duplication, education, elevation, elongation, emanation, embarkation, emigration, emulation, equitation, escalation, estimation, evocation, excavation, excitation, exclamation, exhalation, exhortation, exhumation, expectation, expiration, explanation, explication, exploitation, exploration, fabrication, fascination, federation, fermentation, fibrillation, figuration, fluctuation, fluoridation, foliation, formulation, fragmentation, fumigation, gastrulation, generation, germination, glaciation, graduation, granulation, gravitation, habitation, hesitation, hibernation, illustration, imitation, immigration, implantation, implication, importation, impregnation, imputation, incantation, incarnation, inclination, incrustation, incubation, indentation, indexation, indication, indignation, infestation, infiltration, inflammation, information, inhalation, innovation, inspiration, installation, instigation, insulation, integration, intimation, intonation, inundation, invitation, invocation, irrigation, irritation, isolation, jubilation, laceration, legislation, levitation, liberation, limitation, liquidation, litigation, lubrication, machination, malformation, masturbation, maturation, mediation, medication, meditation, menstruation, ministration, miscreation, miseration, mitigation, moderation, modulation, molestation, motivation, mutilation, navigation, nomination, nucleation, obfuscation, obligation, observation, occupation, operation, orchestration, ordination, oscillation, ostentation, ovulation, oxidation, pagination, palpitation, penetration, perforation, permutation, perspiration, perturbation, pigmentation, pollination, population, preparation, presentation, preservation, proclamation, procreation, profanation, propagation, protestation, provocation, publication, punctuation, radiation, realization, recantation, recitation, reclamation, recreation, reformation, refutation, registration, regulation, rehydration, relaxation, relocation, renovation, reparation, replication, reputation, reservation, resignation, respiration, restoration, retardation, revelation, revocation, rumination, sanitation, saturation, segmentation, segregation, separation, sequestration, simulation, speculation, stimulation, stipulation, strangulation, subluxation, suffocation, superstation, syncopation, syndication, tabulation, termination, titillation, toleration, transformation, transplantation, transportation, trepidation, tribulation, usurpation, vaccination, vacillation, validation, valuation, variation, vegetation, ventilation, vindication, violation, visitation 5 syllable words abbreviation, abomination, acceleration, accommodation, accreditation, accumulation, adjudication, administration, affiliation, agglomeration, alienation, alleviation, alliteration, amalgamation, amelioration, amortization, amplification, annihilation, anticipation, appreciation, appropriation, approximation, argumentation, articulation, assassination, assimilation, association, authentication, authorization, balkanization, brutalization, capitulation, centralization, certification, christianization, civilization, clarification, classification, coagulation, codification, cogeneration, cohabitation, collaboration, colonization, colorization, commemoration, communication, communization, concatenation, conciliation, confabulation, confederation, configuration, conglomeration, congratulation, consideration, consolidation, contamination, continuation, cooperation, coordination, corroboration, decaffeination, decapitation, deceleration, deforestation, degeneration, deification, deliberation, delineation, demodulation, demonization, denomination, denunciation, depreciation, deregulation, desalination, desegregation, determination, detoxication, devaluation, discoloration, discrimination, disembarkation, disinclination, disinformation, disintegration, dissemination, dissociation, documentation, domestication, dramatization, echolocation, edification, ejaculation, elaboration, elimination, emancipation, enumeration, equalization, equivocation, eradication, evacuation, evaluation, evaporation, exacerbation, exaggeration, examination, exasperation, excoriation, exfoliation, exhilaration, exoneration, expatriation, expropriation, extermination, extrapolation, facilitation, falsification, fertilization, finlandization, fortification, gasification, generalization, genetization, gentrification, globalization, glorification, gratification, hallucination, harmonization, humiliation, hybridization, hydrogenation, hyperinflation, illumination, imagination, immunization, impersonation, implementation, improvisation, inactivation, inauguration, incarceration, incineration, incorporation, incrimination, indoctrination, infatuation, inhabitation, initiation, inoculation, insemination, insinuation, instrumentation, interpretation, interrogation, intimidation, intoxication, invalidation, investigation, ionization, irradiation, islamization, justification, legalization, liberalization, localization, magnetization, magnification, manifestation, manipulation, maximization, mechanization, misallocation, misapplication, miscalculation, misinformation, mobilization, modernization, modification, multiplication, mummification, nationalization, naturalization, negotiation, neutralization, normalization, notification, nullification, optimization, organisation, organization, orientation, origination, ornamentation, ossification, pacification, panelization, participation, pasteurization, perpetuation, polarization, pontification, precipitation, predestination, prefabrication, premeditation, preoccupation, pressurization, privatisation, privatization, procrastination, prognostication, proliferation, pronunciation, purification, qualification, quantification, ramification, ratification, rationalization, reaffirmation, reallocation, recalculation, recommendation, reconfirmation, recrimination, rectification, recuperation, redecoration, rededication, reeducation, reforestation, refrigeration, regeneration, regimentation, reincarnation, reintegration, reiteration, rejuvenation, remediation, remuneration, renomination, renunciation, repatriation, representation, repudiation, reregulation, resuscitation, retaliation, revaluation, reverberation, russification, sanctification, sedimentation, simplification, socialization, solicitation, sophistication, specialization, specification, stabilization, stalinization, standardization, sterilization, subordination, subsidization, substantiation, triangulation, unification, unionization, urbanization, utilization, vaporization, verification, victimization, vilification, visualization, vulgarization, westernization 6 syllable words acidification, alphabetization, cannibalization, capitalization, categorization, characterization, collectivization, commercialization, computerization, conceptualization, criminalization, decentralization, decertification, decontamination, dehumanization, demobilization, democratization, demoralization, desalinization, destabilization, deterioration, detoxification, differentiation, discontinuation, disorganization, disorientation, disqualification, diversification, electrification, excommunication, experimentation, generalization, homogenization, hospitalization, identification, incapacitation, incoordination, indemnification, insubordination, intensification, intercorporation, marginalization, mineralization, misappropriation, miscommunication, misinterpretation, misrepresentation, monopolization, nationalization, naturalization, nondiscrimination, nonproliferation, overpopulation, overregulation, overvaluation, personalization, personification, politicization, popularization, radicalization, rationalization, reaffiliation, reauthorization, recertification, reclassification, reconciliation, reconfiguration, reconsideration, reevaluation, reexamination, rehabilitation, reincorporation, reinterpretation, reinvigoration, renegotiation, reorganization, reunification, revitalization, saponification, securitization, self-congratulation, self-determination, self-perpetuation, singularization, suburbanization, transillumination, undervaluation

3 answers


The lion in Nordic heraldry

The heraldic lion is quite common in Western Europe, and several European countries incorporate it into their national coats of arms. In Nordic heraldry, the lion is first-found in the coat of arms of Denmark in the later part of the 12th century.

Starting in the 12th century, the territory of today's Finland was gradually incorporated into the Swedish kingdom, and this coincided with the period when coats of arms first came into use in northern Europe. The first known use of the lion in Sweden was on the royal seals of Erik Knutsson (died 1216) and Erik Eriksson (1216-50), who used two and three lions on their seal, respectively. The first king of the Folkunga family, Valdemar Birgersson (1239-1302), also used 3 lions on his seal (Figure 2).

Finland as a duchyBengt Birgersson, the first Duke of Finland (1254-91, Duke from 1284 until 1291), and Valdemar Magnusson, the second Duke (died 1318, Duke of Finland from 1302 until 1317), both used the later Folkunga coat of arms, which was a crowned lion rampant with three bends sinister, the main difference being that Valdemar's arms had the field strewn with hearts (Figure 3). This version of the arms was quite similar to the modern coat of arms of Finland, but the lion did not yet brandish any weapon. Creation of the armsWhen John III assumed the title of "Grand Duke of Finland and Karelia", soon shortened to Grand Duke of Finland in 1577 (or soon thereafter), the lion became closely associated with Finland through the grand-ducal coats of arms (Figure 5). The grand-ducal coat of arms is thought to have resulted out of a combination of the Göta lion (originating from the Folkunga lion) and the arms of Karelia (Figure 6). The result was that the lion brandishes one weapon and treads on another.

The best-known version of the grand-ducal coat of arms is found on the tomb of Gustavus I (1523-60) in the Uppsala cathedral (Figure 5). It has been suggested that either Duke John himself, or his brother Eric XIV, was leading the design work on the heraldic signs on the tomb. Neither statement can be confirmed, but it is known that Eric XIV showed an interest in heraldry. The monument was commissioned from Guillaume Boyen (Willem Boy), a Flemish architect and sculptor who had worked in Sweden. He started on the task in Antwerp in 1562, completing it 10 years later; however, the tomb was not in place in Uppsala until the early 1580s, and the finishing work lasted until 1591. In addition to the royal arms of Sweden and those of Finland, the arms of the 11 provinces are depicted. From Finland they include North and South Finland, as well as Tavastia and Karelia. The work of Willem Boy is of exceptional quality, which is perhaps explained by the fact that lions were a dominant feature in the heraldry of Flanders, and he would therefore have had a great deal of exposure to it before receiving the commission for the tomb of Gustavus I.

The earliest known blazon from this period states that the arms of Finland represents A crowned lion of gold holding a sword in the right forepaw and trampling with both hindpaws on a Russian sabre (ryssesabel), surrounded by nine silver roses in a red field, over the shield a golden crown with a red cap.

As both King Gustavus I and his son, John III, were involved in lengthy wars with Russia, it should come as no surprise this was a central element in the arms of both the Grand Duchy of Finland, and in that in the coat of arms of the Finnish province of Karelia, which symbolizes the fight between East and West.

The purpose of the nine roses remains unknown, but are now mostly considered to be decorative only. They have sometimes been claimed to represent the nine historical provinces of Finland, but this hypothesis has not found support among prominent scholars.[ The number of towns in the nominal "Grand Duchy of Finland and Karelia" in 1580 were also nine, but no known historical research provides support for a link between the number of roses and the number of towns in Finland in 1580.

Evolution of the armsSwedish eraDuring the following centuries, the arms of Finland were to appear in different versions of varying artistic quality, and it was only in the late 19th century when the Uppsala lion was again taken into use as the prototype for the coat of arms of Finland.

The lion experienced several changes during the 17th century. In the funeral banner of Charles X Gustavus (in 1660) it can be seen treading on the sabre with all three free paws; in drawings by Elias Brenner (in the Suecia antique et hodierna by Erik Dahlberg, printed in 1716), it is pictured with a double tail (queue fourchée) and with an almost walking posture.

Russian eraAfter Finland had been ceded to Russia (as a consequence of the Swedish-Russian war of 1808-1809), Erik Brenner's version of the lion was chosen by the authorities as the model for the new coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire. The blazon in the decree of 26 October 1809 states: The shield has a red field, strewn with roses of silver, on which a golden lion with a crown of gold, standing on a silver saber, which it grasps with the left forepaw while holding in the right forepaw an upright sword. Obviously, any interpretation of the lion as trampling on a Russian sabre had been lost at this point in time.

During the reform of the Russian official heraldry in 1857, the lion was again changed on the initiative of baron Bernhard Karl von Köhne. The blazon states: On a red field strewn with silver roses a crowned lion of gold, holding in the right forepaw an upright sword and in the left one a curved sword on which it rests with the right hindpaw. The main changes were that the lion had started to resemble a dog rather than a lion, and the crown on top of the shield had been changed to an arched crown without a cap, and with a small Russian eagle on the rim. The sword in the right forepaw had shrunk in size, to the point of resembling a dagger rather than a sword (Figure 8).

During the years when the Russian emperors attempted russification of Finland (1899-1905 and 1908-17), the use of the arms of Finland increased significantly, and eventually became popular in the broader population.

The director of the Finnish National Archives, Karl August Bomansson (1827-1906) made the first significant study on the arms of Finland in modern times. He restored the appearance of the arms in 1886, so that it closely resembled the Uppsala lion. However, there was a slight deviation on how the lion tramples on the saber, and the arched crown with the imperial eagle in the von Köhne version was replaced with a crown similar to that of a German princely crown. This version of the arms was subsequently used in the early years of Finnish independence.

Early independenceDuring the 1920s and 1930s, the national arms became the subject of some controversy, and the debate centered on whether the lion should be replaced with a bear, which had an important place in the national folklore. Already in 1557, the bear had emerged as the emblem of Finnia Septentrionalis ("North Finland", at the time roughly the same as Satakunta and northern Finland Proper) and continues to be used as the coat of arms of Satakunta. However, outside Finland, the bear was usually regarded as a symbol of Russia. The debate was however not settled, and throughout most of the 20th century, versions of the arms were used that closely adhered to the Uppsala lion.

In 1936, a state committee suggested a compromise that Finland should have a "greater" and a "smaller" coat of arms. The greater coat of arms was proposed to have two bears as supporters of the arms, with a base of spruce twigs and with the motto vapaa, vankka, vakaa ("free, firm, steadfast"). This would have given the bear a place in the national heraldry, but the design was never confirmed, nor was this version of the arms taken into use.

TodayThe blazon of the national coat of arms was finally settled in 1978, when the law of 26 May 1978 (381/78) described the coat of arms as follows: On a red field, a crowned lion, the right forepaw replaced with an armoured hand brandishing a sword, trampling on a saber with the hindpaws, the lion, crowned and armed, the weapons hilted and the armour garnished gold, the blades and the armour silver, the field strewn with nine roses of silver. (This is, however, a direct translation from Finnish; the heraldic blazon would be Gules, a lion crowned Or rampant striking with a sword Argent on his armoured dexter arm, trampling on a sabre Argent; surmounted with nine roses Argent)

The coat of arms appears on the Finnish state flag. The Finnish lion is also used in a wide variety of emblems of different state authorities, often modified to depict the duties of the unit or the authority. On the other hand, the Finnish municipalities and regions usually use heraldic motifs drawn from elsewhere, leaving the lion for state use (exceptions exist, such as the Coat of arms of Jakobstad). Finnish lion also appears as armed force's generals' rank insigna and in navy as part of officer's rank insigna.

1 answer


2 syllables:

Haitian, haitien, mation, nation, ration, station

3 syllables:

aid station, air station, alsatian, bus station, carnation, castration, causation, cessation, cetacean, citation, coach station, creation, cremation, croatian, crustacean, dalmatian, damnation, deflation, dictation, dilation, donation, duration, elation, filtration, fixation, flirtation, flotation, formation, foundation, frustration, gas station, gestation, gradation, gyration, horatian, hydration, inflation, lactation, libration, ligation, location, migration, mutation, narration, negation, nitration, notation, optation, oration, ovation, plantation, privation, probation, proration, prostration, quotation, reflation, relation, rotation, salvation, sarmatian, sedation, sensation, shore station, space station, stagflation, stagnation, starvation, summation, taxation, temptation, train station, translation, vacation, vaxstation, vibration, vocation

4 syllables:

abdication, aberration, abrogation, acclimation, accusation, activation, adaptation, admiration, adoration, adulation, advocation, affectation, affirmation, affrication, aggravation, agitation, allegation, allocation, alteration, altercation, amputation, animation, annexation, annotation, Appalachian, appellation, application, approbation, arbitration, Asian nation, aspiration, assocation, augmentation, automation, aviacion, aviation, avocation, backwardation, balkan nation, bifurcation, blood relation, calculation, calibration, cancellation, celebration, cogitation, coloration, combination, comfort station, commendation, compensation, compilation, complication, computation, concentration, condemnation, condensation, confirmation, confiscation, conflagration, confrontation, congregation, conjugation, connotation, consecration, conservation, consolation, constellation, consternation, constipation, consultation, consummation, contemplation, conversation, convocation, coronation, corporation, correlation, culmination, cultivation, d'aviation, declaration, decoration, dedication, defamation, deformation, degradation, dehydration, delegation, demarcation, demonstration, deportation, depravation, depredation, deprivation, derivation, desecration, desiccation, designation, desolation, desperation, destination, detonation, devastation, deviation, dilatation, disinflation, dislocation, dispensation, disputation, dissertation, dissipation, distillation, divination, domination, dressing station, duplication, education, elevation, elongation, emanation, embarkation, emigration, emulation, equitation, escalation, estimation, evocation, excavation, excitation, exclamation, exhalation, exhortation, exhumation, expectation, expiration, explanation, explication, exploitation, exploration, fabrication, fascination, federation, fermentation, fibrillation, figuration, filling station, fire station, fluctuation, fluoridation, foliation, formulation, fragmentation, fumigation, gastrulation, generation, gene mutation, germination, glaciation, graduation, granulation, gravitation, habitation, heat prostration, hesitation, hibernation, illustration, imitation, immigration, implantation, implication, importation, impregnation, imputation, incantation, incarnation, inclination, incrustation, incubation, indentation, indexation, indication, indignation, infestation, infiltration, inflammation, information, inhalation, innovation, inspiration, installation, instigation, insulation, integration, intimation, intonation, inundation, invitation, invocation, irrigation, irritation, isolation, jubilation, laceration, legislation, levitation, liberation, limitation, liquidation, litigation, loan translation, lookout station, lubrication, machination, malformation, masturbation, maturation, mediation, medication, meditation, menstruation, ministration, miscreation, miseration, mitigation, moderation, modulation, molestation, motivation, mutilation, navigation, nomination, nucleation, obfuscation, obligation, observation, occupation, operation, orchestration, ordination, oscillation, ostentation, ovulation, oxidation, pagination, paid vacation, pair creation, pair formation, palpitation, penetration, perforation, permutation, perspiration, perturbation, petrol station, pigmentation, point mutation, police station, pollination, polling station, population, power station, preparation, presentation, preservation, proclamation, procreation, profanation, propagation, protestation, provocation, publication, pumping station, punctuation, radiation, raft foundation, railroad station, railway station, realization, recantation, recitation, reclamation, recreation, reformation, refutation, registration, regulation, rehydration, relaxation, relocation, remote station, renovation, reparation, replication, reputation, reservation, resignation, respiration, restoration, retardation, revelation, revocation, rumination, sampling station, sanitation, saturation, segmentation, segregation, separation, sequestration, service station, simulation, situation, skin sensation, social station, speculation, stimulation, stipulation, strangulation, subluxation, subway station, suffocation, superstation, syndication, tabulation, taste sensation, termination, titillation, toleration, touch sensation, transformation, transplantation, transportation, trepidation, tribulation, tv station, unimation, univation, usurpation, vaccination, vacillation, validation, valuation, variation, vegetation, ventilation, vindication, violation, visitation, weather station

5 syllables:

abbreviation, abomination, acceleration, accommodation, accreditation, accumulation, across the nation, adjudication, administration, affiliation, African nation, agglomeration, alienation, alleviation, amalgamation, amelioration, amortization, amplification, annihilation, anticipation, appreciation, appropriation, approximation, argumentation, articulation, assassination, assimilation, association, authentication, authorization, balkanization, beat generation, business relation, capitulation, centralization, certification, change of location, christianization, civilization, clarification, classification, closed corporation, close corporation, coagulation, codification, cogeneration, cohabitation, collaboration, colonization, colorization, commemoration, communication, communization, concatenation, conciliation, confabulation, confederation, configuration, conglomeration, congratulation, consideration, consolidation, contamination, continuation, cooperation, coordination, corroboration, decaffeination, decapitation, deceleration, deforestation, degeneration, deification, deliberation, delineation, demodulation, demonization, denomination, denunciation, depreciation, deregulation, desalination, desegregation, determination, detoxication, devaluation, direct quotation, discoloration, discrimination, disembarkation, disinclination, disinformation, disintegration, dissemination, dissociation, documentation, domestication, dramatization, echolocation, edification, ejaculation, elaboration, elimination, emancipation, enumeration, equalization, equivocation, eradication, evacuation, evaluation, evaporation, exacerbation, exaggeration, examination, exasperation, exfoliation, exhilaration, exoneration, expatriation, expropriation, extermination, extrapolation, facilitation, falsification, fertilization, finlandization, fortification, gasification, gasoline station, genetization, gentrification, globalization, glorification, grade separation, gratification, hallucination, harmonization, heat of formation, humiliation, hybridization, hydrogenation, hyperinflation, illumination, imagination, immunization, impersonation, implementation, improvisation, inactivation, inauguration, incarceration, incorporation, incrimination, indoctrination, infatuation, inhabitation, initiation, inoculation, insemination, insinuation, instrumentation, interpretation, interrogation, intimidation, intoxication, invalidation, investigation, in operation, in that location, ionization, irradiation, islamization, job application, justification, legalization, legal relation, liberalization, loan application, localization, machine translation, magnetization, magnification, manifestation, manipulation, maximization, mean deviation, mechanization, misallocation, misapplication, miscalculation, misinformation, mobilization, modernization, modification, mummification, negotiation, nervous prostration, neutralization, normalization, notification, nullification, oil conservation, optimization, organisation, organization, orientation, origination, ornamentation, ossification, pacification, painful sensation, panelization, participation, partner relation, pasteurization, perpetuation, phase modulation, phi correlation, polarization, polish notation, pontification, precipitation, predestination, prefabrication, prefix notation, premeditation, preoccupation, pressure sensation, pressurization, private foundation, privatisation, privatization, procrastination, prognostication, proliferation, pronunciation, pulse modulation, purification, qualification, quantification, radio station, ramification, rate of inflation, ratification, reaffirmation, reallocation, recalculation, recommendation, reconfirmation, recrimination, rectification, recuperation, redecoration, rededication, reforestation, refrigeration, regeneration, regimentation, reincarnation, reiteration, rejuvenation, remediation, remuneration, renomination, renunciation, repatriation, representation, repudiation, reregulation, resuscitation, retaliation, revaluation, reverberation, russification, sanctification, sedimentation, set decoration, sex segregation, shell corporation, simplification, skew correlation, socialization, social relation, soil conservation, solicitation, sophistication, spatial relation, specialization, specification, stabilization, stalinization, standardization, standing ovation, star divination, sterilization, subordination, subsidization, substantiation, suffix notation, tabloidization, tactile sensation, triangulation, trust corporation, tubal ligation, unification, unionization, urbanization, utilization, vaporization, veiled accusation, verbal creation, verification, victimization, vilification, visualization, vulgarization, westernization, wind generation, with inspiration, with moderation, with ostentation, with speculation

6 syllables:

acidification, active application, adult education, alphabetization, alpha radiation, artistic creation, auto limitation, axis of rotation, background radiation, beta radiation, binary notation, blood coagulation, board of education, broad interpretation, bush administration, cannibalization, capitalization, categorization, change orientation, characterization, chemical notation, collectivization, commercialization, complement fixation, computerization, control operation, counter reformation, covert operation, credit application, criminalization, cryptic coloration, daily variation, decentralization, decertification, decimal notation, decontamination, dehumanization, demobilization, democratization, demoralization, desalinization, destabilization, detoxification, de jure segregation, differentiation, direct correlation, discontinuation, disorganization, disorientation, disqualification, diversification, dust contamination, electrification, eternal damnation, European nation, excommunication, experimentation, feast of dedication, field of operation, free association, gamma radiation, generalization, giving medication, group participation, heat of condensation, higher education, hospitalization, identification, incapacitation, incoordination, indemnification, infantile fixation, inside information, insubordination, intensification, intercorporation, in collaboration, law of gravitation, law of segregation, lecture demonstration, legal separation, line organization, linguistic relation, loan participation, logical relation, logic operation, machine operation, magnitude relation, marginalization, medical relation, mental reservation, mental retardation, mineralization, misappropriation, miscommunication, misinterpretation, misrepresentation, missionary station, monopolization, moral obligation, mortgage application, musical notation, nationalization, naturalization, naval installation, neutron radiation, nitrogen fixation, nondiscrimination, nonproliferation, observation station, oral presentation, overpopulation, overregulation, overt operation, overvaluation, partial correlation, part to whole relation, patent application, personalization, personal relation, personification, politicization, popularization, printing operation, private corporation, public presentation, racial segregation, radicalization, rationalization, reaffiliation, reauthorization, recertification, reclassification, reconciliation, reconfiguration, reconsideration, reevaluation, reexamination, rehabilitation, reincorporation, reinterpretation, reinvigoration, renegotiation, reorganization, reunification, revitalization, saponification, securitization, self-congratulation, self-determination, self-perpetuation, semantic relation, sexual relation, singularization, solar radiation, special education, standard deviation, suburbanization, Swiss confederation, television station, temporal relation, threshold operation, transillumination, undervaluation, vacuum aspiration, visual sensation, warning coloration, water conservation, water of hydration, whole to part relation, without moderation, with consideration, with determination, workmen's compensation, world organization

7 syllables:

academic relation, acid precipitation, americanization, amplitude modulation, angle of inclination, antidiscrimination, antitrust legislation, auditory sensation, baptist denomination, binary operation, business organization, by experimentation, carter administration, celestial navigation, clandestine operation, Clinton administration, closely held corporation, cognitive operation, computer operation, concrete representation, concurrent operation, conditional relation, criminal conversation, dark field illumination, dark ground illumination, data communication, decriminalization, demand for explanation, demilitarization, denationalization, denuclearization, destructive distillation, de facto segregation, diurnal variation, doctor of education, electron radiation, feast of the dedication, final examination, financial obligation, fourfold point correlation, fractional distillation, frequency modulation, grammatical relation, guilt by association, heat of dissociation, heat of vaporization, Indian reservation, indirect correlation, industrialization, inertial navigation, infrared radiation, insider information, judicial separation, kendall rank correlation, legal representation, logical implication, logical operation, lukasiewicz notation, magnetic inclination, magnetic levitation, magnetic variation, master of education, mental representation, midterm examination, military formation, miniaturization, mischaracterization, misidentification, multiplex operation, natural elevation, negative correlation, negative stimulation, north American nation, olfactory sensation, optical aberration, oral communication, oral examination, parallel operation, philanthropic foundation, physical education, physical restoration, point of accumulation, police investigation, political relation, positive correlation, practical application, professional relation, protective coloration, psychic communication, racial extermination, radio observation, radio radiation, rate of acceleration, rate of depreciation, Reagan administration, recapitalization, renationalization, reverse polish notation, right of first publication, Scandinavian nation, selective information, sequential operation, serial operation, serial publication, social organization, software documentation, source of illumination, south American nation, spherical aberration, spurious correlation, surface assimilation, surgical operation, suspended animation, sympathetic vibration, telecommunication, telephone conversation, under consideration, unspoken accusation, value orientation, vertical combination, vertical integration, victory celebration, visible radiation, without consideration, world health organization, written communication

8 syllables:

aegean civilization, amphibious demonstration, amphibious operation, animal communication, arithmetic operation, artificial respiration, asynchronous operation, auxiliary operation, behavior modification, cardiac resuscitation, central American nation, character assassination, confidential information, consecutive operation, department of education, department of transportation, digital communication, economic strangulation, elementary education, enabling legislation, fiduciary relation, financial organization, freedom from discrimination, geological formation, holy day of obligation, horizontal combination, horizontal integration, institutionalization, intelligence operation, interior decoration, internal representation, internationalization, letters of administration, linguistic communication, literal interpretation, majority operation, mathematical notation, mathematical relation, medical examination, military installation, Minoan civilization, musical organization, newton's law of gravitation, nonlinear correlation, postmortem examination, privately held corporation, protestant denomination, psychical communication, religious orientation, secondary education, spontaneous generation, symbolic representation, unemployment compensation, ventricular fibrillation, visual communication, vocational education

9 syllables:

anabaptist denomination, anomalous communication, articles of incorporation, artificial insemination, auditory communication, coefficient of correlation, deinstitutionalization, demand for identification, economic mobilization, electronic communication, el nino southern oscillation, health maintenance organization, hydrogen ion concentration, kendall partial rank correlation, mathematical operation, mycenaean civilization, myocardial inflammation, pecuniary obligation, physical rehabilitation, pictorial representation, political orientation, professional association, proportional representation, reasoning by elimination, savings and loan association, secretary of education, secretary of transportation, simultaneous operation, through empirical observation, ultraviolet radiation

10 syllables:

certificate of incorporation, correctional rehabilitation, electromagnetic radiation, federal housing administration, international organization, preliminary examination, therapeutic rehabilitation, ultraviolet illumination, vocational rehabilitation

11 syllables:

binary arithmetic operation, federal bureau of investigation, federal home loan mortgage corporation, food and agriculture organization, international finance corporation, north Atlantic treaty organization, paramilitary organization, social security administration

12 syllables:

cardiopulmonary resuscitation, international labor organization, international labour organization, simulated military operation

13 syllables:

federal deposit insurance corporation, federal national mortgage association, international maritime organization, world meteorological organization

14 syllables:

international development association, national aeronautics and space administration

contipulation- confused but have some idea

3 answers


Salvation, plantation, sensation, donation, formation, foundation, temptation, vacation, fixation, frustration, celebration, concentration...

1 syllable:

corp, corp.

2 syllables:

Haitian, haitien, nation, ration, station

3 syllables:

aid station, air station, alsatian, bus station, carnation, castration, causation, cessation, cetacean, citation, coach station, creation, cremation, croatian, crustacean, dalmatian, damnation, deflation, dictation, dilation, donation, duration, elation, filtration, fixation, flirtation, flotation, formation, foundation, frustration, gas station, gestation, gradation, gyration, hydration, inflation, lactation, ligation, location, migration, mutation, narration, negation, notation, oration, ovation, plantation, privation, probation, proration, prostration, quotation, reflation, relation, rotation, salvation, sedation, sensation, shore station, space station, stagflation, stagnation, starvation, summation, taxation, temptation, train station, translation, vacation, vibration, vocation

4 syllables:

abdication, aberration, abrogation, acclimation, accusation, activation, adaptation, admiration, adoration, adulation, advocation, affectation, affirmation, affrication, aggravation, agitation, allegation, allocation, alteration, altercation, amputation, animation, annexation, annotation, Appalachian, appellation, application, approbation, arbitration, Asian nation, aspiration, assocation, augmentation, automation, aviacion, aviation, avocation, backwardation, balkan nation, bifurcation, blood relation, calculation, calibration, cancellation, celebration, cogitation, coloration, combination, comfort station, commendation, compensation, compilation, complication, computation, concentration, condemnation, condensation, confirmation, confiscation, conflagration, confrontation, congregation, conjugation, connotation, consecration, conservation, consolation, constellation, consternation, constipation, consultation, consummation, contemplation, conversation, convocation, coronation, corporation, correlation, culmination, cultivation, d'aviation, declaration, decoration, dedication, defamation, deformation, degradation, dehydration, delegation, demarcation, demonstration, deportation, depravation, depredation, deprivation, derivation, desecration, desiccation, designation, desolation, desperation, destination, detonation, devastation, deviation, dilatation, disinflation, dislocation, dispensation, disputation, dissertation, dissipation, distillation, divination, domination, dressing station, duplication, education, elevation, elongation, emanation, embarkation, emigration, emulation, equitation, escalation, estimation, evocation, excavation, excitation, exclamation, exhalation, exhortation, exhumation, expectation, expiration, explanation, explication, exploitation, exploration, fabrication, fascination, federation, fermentation, fibrillation, figuration, filling station, fire station, fluctuation, fluoridation, foliation, formulation, fragmentation, fumigation, gastrulation, generation, gene mutation, germination, glaciation, graduation, granulation, gravitation, habitation, heat prostration, hesitation, illustration, imitation, immigration, implantation, implication, importation, impregnation, imputation, incantation, incarnation, inclination, incrustation, incubation, indentation, indexation, indication, indignation, infestation, infiltration, inflammation, information, inhalation, innovation, inspiration, installation, instigation, insulation, integration, intimation, intonation, inundation, invitation, invocation, irrigation, irritation, isolation, jubilation, laceration, legislation, levitation, liberation, limitation, liquidation, litigation, loan translation, lookout station, lubrication, machination, malformation, masturbation, maturation, mediation, medication, meditation, menstruation, ministration, miscreation, miseration, mitigation, moderation, modulation, molestation, motivation, mutilation, navigation, nomination, nucleation, obfuscation, obligation, observation, occupation, operation, orchestration, ordination, oscillation, ostentation, ovulation, oxidation, pagination, paid vacation, pair creation, pair formation, palpitation, penetration, perforation, permutation, perspiration, perturbation, petrol station, pigmentation, point mutation, police station, pollination, polling station, population, power station, preparation, presentation, preservation, proclamation, procreation, profanation, propagation, protestation, provocation, publication, pumping station, punctuation, radiation, raft foundation, railroad station, railway station, realization, recantation, recitation, reclamation, recreation, reformation, refutation, registration, regulation, rehydration, relaxation, relocation, remote station, renovation, reparation, replication, reputation, reservation, resignation, respiration, restoration, retardation, revelation, revocation, rumination, sampling station, sanitation, saturation, segmentation, segregation, separation, sequestration, service station, simulation, situation, skin sensation, social station, speculation, stimulation, stipulation, strangulation, subluxation, subway station, suffocation, superstation, syndication, tabulation, taste sensation, termination, titillation, toleration, touch sensation, transformation, transplantation, transportation, trepidation, tribulation, tv station, unimation, univation, usurpation, vaccination, vacillation, validation, valuation, variation, vegetation, ventilation, vindication, violation, visitation, weather station

5 syllables:

abbreviation, abomination, acceleration, accommodation, accreditation, accumulation, across the nation, adjudication, administration, affiliation, African nation, agglomeration, alienation, alleviation, amalgamation, amelioration, amortization, amplification, annihilation, anticipation, appreciation, appropriation, approximation, argumentation, articulation, assassination, assimilation, association, authentication, authorization, balkanization, beat generation, business relation, capitulation, centralization, certification, change of location, christianization, civilization, clarification, classification, closed corporation, close corporation, coagulation, codification, cogeneration, cohabitation, collaboration, colonization, colorization, commemoration, communication, communization, concatenation, conciliation, confabulation, confederation, configuration, conglomeration, congratulation, consideration, consolidation, contamination, continuation, cooperation, coordination, corroboration, decaffeination, decapitation, deceleration, deforestation, degeneration, deification, deliberation, delineation, demodulation, demonization, denomination, denunciation, depreciation, deregulation, desalination, desegregation, determination, detoxication, devaluation, direct quotation, discoloration, discrimination, disembarkation, disinclination, disinformation, disintegration, dissemination, dissociation, documentation, domestication, dramatization, echolocation, edification, ejaculation, elaboration, elimination, emancipation, enumeration, equalization, equivocation, eradication, evacuation, evaluation, evaporation, exacerbation, exaggeration, examination, exasperation, exfoliation, exhilaration, exoneration, expatriation, expropriation, extermination, extrapolation, facilitation, falsification, fertilization, finlandization, fortification, gasification, gasoline station, genetization, gentrification, globalization, glorification, grade separation, gratification, hallucination, harmonization, heat of formation, humiliation, hybridization, hydrogenation, hyperinflation, illumination, imagination, immunization, impersonation, implementation, improvisation, inactivation, inauguration, incarceration, incorporation, incrimination, indoctrination, infatuation, inhabitation, initiation, inoculation, insemination, insinuation, instrumentation, interpretation, interrogation, intimidation, intoxication, invalidation, investigation, in operation, in that location, ionization, irradiation, islamization, job application, justification, legalization, legal relation, liberalization, loan application, localization, machine translation, magnetization, magnification, manifestation, manipulation, maximization, mean deviation, mechanization, misallocation, misapplication, miscalculation, misinformation, mobilization, modernization, modification, multiplication, mummification, negotiation, nervous prostration, neutralization, normalization, notification, nullification, oil conservation, optimization, organisation, organization, orientation, origination, ornamentation, ossification, pacification, painful sensation, panelization, participation, partner relation, pasteurization, perpetuation, phase modulation, phi correlation, polarization, polish notation, pontification, precipitation, predestination, prefabrication, prefix notation, premeditation, preoccupation, pressure sensation, pressurization, private foundation, privatisation, privatization, procrastination, prognostication, proliferation, pronunciation, pulse modulation, purification, qualification, quantification, radio station, ramification, rate of inflation, ratification, reaffirmation, reallocation, recalculation, recommendation, reconfirmation, recrimination, rectification, recuperation, redecoration, rededication, reforestation, refrigeration, regeneration, regimentation, reincarnation, reiteration, rejuvenation, remediation, remuneration, renomination, renunciation, repatriation, representation, repudiation, reregulation, resuscitation, retaliation, revaluation, reverberation, russification, sanctification, sedimentation, set decoration, sex segregation, shell corporation, simplification, skew correlation, socialization, social relation, soil conservation, solicitation, sophistication, spatial relation, specialization, specification, stabilization, stalinization, standardization, standing ovation, star divination, sterilization, subordination, subsidization, substantiation, suffix notation, tabloidization, tactile sensation, triangulation, trust corporation, tubal ligation, unification, unionization, urbanization, utilization, vaporization, veiled accusation, verbal creation, verification, victimization, vilification, visualization, vulgarization, westernization, wind generation, with inspiration, with moderation, with ostentation, with speculation

6 syllables:

acidification, active application, adult education, alphabetization, alpha radiation, artistic creation, auto limitation, axis of rotation, background radiation, beta radiation, binary notation, blood coagulation, board of education, broad interpretation, bush administration, cannibalization, capitalization, categorization, change orientation, characterization, chemical notation, collectivization, commercialization, complement fixation, computerization, control operation, counter reformation, covert operation, credit application, criminalization, cryptic coloration, daily variation, decentralization, decertification, decimal notation, decontamination, dehumanization, demobilization, democratization, demoralization, desalinization, destabilization, detoxification, de jure segregation, differentiation, direct correlation, discontinuation, disorganization, disorientation, disqualification, diversification, dust contamination, electrification, eternal damnation, European nation, excommunication, experimentation, feast of dedication, field of operation, free association, gamma radiation, generalization, giving medication, group participation, heat of condensation, higher education, hospitalization, identification, incapacitation, incoordination, indemnification, infantile fixation, inside information, insubordination, intensification, intercorporation, in collaboration, law of gravitation, law of segregation, lecture demonstration, legal separation, line organization, linguistic relation, loan participation, logical relation, logic operation, machine operation, magnitude relation, marginalization, medical relation, mental reservation, mental retardation, mineralization, misappropriation, miscommunication, misinterpretation, misrepresentation, missionary station, monopolization, moral obligation, mortgage application, musical notation, nationalization, naturalization, naval installation, neutron radiation, nitrogen fixation, nondiscrimination, nonproliferation, observation station, oral presentation, overpopulation, overregulation, overt operation, overvaluation, partial correlation, part to whole relation, patent application, personalization, personal relation, personification, politicization, popularization, printing operation, private corporation, public presentation, racial segregation, radicalization, rationalization, reaffiliation, reauthorization, recertification, reclassification, reconciliation, reconfiguration, reconsideration, reevaluation, reexamination, rehabilitation, reincorporation, reinterpretation, reinvigoration, renegotiation, reorganization, reunification, revitalization, saponification, securitization, self-congratulation, self-determination, self-perpetuation, semantic relation, sexual relation, singularization, solar radiation, special education, standard deviation, suburbanization, Swiss confederation, television station, temporal relation, threshold operation, transillumination, undervaluation, vacuum aspiration, visual sensation, warning coloration, water conservation, water of hydration, whole to part relation, without moderation, with consideration, with determination, workmen's compensation, world organization

7 syllables:

academic relation, acid precipitation, americanization, amplitude modulation, angle of inclination, antidiscrimination, antitrust legislation, auditory sensation, baptist denomination, binary operation, business organization, by experimentation, carter administration, celestial navigation, clandestine operation, Clinton administration, closely held corporation, cognitive operation, computer operation, concrete representation, concurrent operation, conditional relation, criminal conversation, dark field illumination, dark ground illumination, data communication, decriminalization, demand for explanation, demilitarization, denationalization, denuclearization, destructive distillation, de facto segregation, diurnal variation, doctor of education, electron radiation, feast of the dedication, final examination, financial obligation, fourfold point correlation, fractional distillation, frequency modulation, grammatical relation, guilt by association, heat of dissociation, heat of vaporization, Indian reservation, indirect correlation, industrialization, inertial navigation, infrared radiation, insider information, judicial separation, kendall rank correlation, legal representation, logical implication, logical operation, lukasiewicz notation, magnetic inclination, magnetic levitation, magnetic variation, master of education, mental representation, midterm examination, military formation, miniaturization, mischaracterization, misidentification, multiplex operation, natural elevation, negative correlation, negative stimulation, north American nation, olfactory sensation, optical aberration, oral communication, oral examination, parallel operation, philanthropic foundation, physical education, physical restoration, point of accumulation, police investigation, political relation, positive correlation, practical application, professional relation, protective coloration, psychic communication, racial extermination, radio observation, radio radiation, rate of acceleration, rate of depreciation, Reagan administration, recapitalization, renationalization, reverse polish notation, right of first publication, Scandinavian nation, selective information, sequential operation, serial operation, serial publication, social organization, software documentation, source of illumination, south American nation, spherical aberration, spurious correlation, surface assimilation, surgical operation, suspended animation, sympathetic vibration, telecommunication, telephone conversation, under consideration, unspoken accusation, value orientation, vertical combination, vertical integration, victory celebration, visible radiation, without consideration, world health organization, written communication

8 syllables:

aegean civilization, amphibious demonstration, amphibious operation, animal communication, arithmetic operation, artificial respiration, asynchronous operation, auxiliary operation, behavior modification, cardiac resuscitation, central American nation, character assassination, confidential information, consecutive operation, department of education, department of transportation, digital communication, economic strangulation, elementary education, enabling legislation, fiduciary relation, financial organization, freedom from discrimination, geological formation, holy day of obligation, horizontal combination, horizontal integration, institutionalization, intelligence operation, interior decoration, internal representation, internationalization, letters of administration, linguistic communication, literal interpretation, majority operation, mathematical notation, mathematical relation, medical examination, military installation, Minoan civilization, musical organization, newton's law of gravitation, nonlinear correlation, postmortem examination, privately held corporation, protestant denomination, psychical communication, religious orientation, secondary education, spontaneous generation, symbolic representation, unemployment compensation, ventricular fibrillation, visual communication, vocational education

9 syllables:

anabaptist denomination, anomalous communication, articles of incorporation, artificial insemination, auditory communication, coefficient of correlation, deinstitutionalization, demand for identification, economic mobilization, electronic communication, el nino southern oscillation, health maintenance organization, hydrogen ion concentration, kendall partial rank correlation, mathematical operation, mycenaean civilization, myocardial inflammation, pecuniary obligation, physical rehabilitation, pictorial representation, political orientation, professional association, proportional representation, reasoning by elimination, savings and loan association, secretary of education, secretary of transportation, simultaneous operation, through empirical observation, ultraviolet radiation

10 syllables:

certificate of incorporation, correctional rehabilitation, electromagnetic radiation, federal housing administration, international organization, preliminary examination, therapeutic rehabilitation, ultraviolet illumination, vocational rehabilitation

11 syllables:

binary arithmetic operation, federal bureau of investigation, federal home loan mortgage corporation, food and agriculture organization, international finance corporation, north Atlantic treaty organization, paramilitary organization, social security administration

12 syllables:

cardiopulmonary resuscitation, international labor organization, international labour organization, simulated military operation

13 syllables:

federal deposit insurance corporation, federal national mortgage association, international maritime organization, world meteorological organization

14 syllables:

international development association, national aeronautics and space administration

from: rhymezone.com

5 answers


2 syllables:

Haitian, haitien, mation, nation, ration, station

3 syllables:

aid station, air station, alsatian, bus station, carnation, castration, causation, cessation, cetacean, citation, coach station, creation, cremation, croatian, crustacean, dalmatian, damnation, deflation, dictation, dilation, donation, duration, elation, filtration, fixation, flirtation, flotation, formation, foundation, frustration, gas station, gestation, gradation, gyration, horatian, hydration, inflation, lactation, libration, ligation, location, migration, mutation, narration, negation, nitration, notation, optation, oration, ovation, plantation, privation, probation, proration, prostration, quotation, reflation, relation, rotation, salvation, sarmatian, sedation, sensation, shore station, space station, stagflation, stagnation, starvation, summation, taxation, temptation, train station, translation, vacation, vaxstation, vibration, vocation

4 syllables:

abdication, aberration, abrogation, acclimation, accusation, activation, adaptation, admiration, adoration, adulation, advocation, affectation, affirmation, affrication, aggravation, agitation, allegation, allocation, alteration, altercation, amputation, animation, annexation, annotation, Appalachian, appellation, application, approbation, arbitration, Asian nation, aspiration, assocation, augmentation, automation, aviacion, aviation, avocation, backwardation, balkan nation, bifurcation, blood relation, calculation, calibration, cancellation, celebration, cogitation, coloration, combination, comfort station, commendation, compensation, compilation, complication, computation, concentration, condemnation, condensation, confirmation, confiscation, conflagration, confrontation, congregation, conjugation, connotation, consecration, conservation, consolation, constellation, consternation, constipation, consultation, consummation, contemplation, conversation, convocation, coronation, corporation, correlation, culmination, cultivation, d'aviation, declaration, decoration, dedication, defamation, deformation, degradation, dehydration, delegation, demarcation, demonstration, deportation, depravation, depredation, deprivation, derivation, desecration, desiccation, designation, desolation, desperation, destination, detonation, devastation, deviation, dilatation, disinflation, dislocation, dispensation, disputation, dissertation, dissipation, distillation, divination, domination, dressing station, duplication, education, elevation, elongation, emanation, embarkation, emigration, emulation, equitation, escalation, estimation, evocation, excavation, excitation, exclamation, exhalation, exhortation, exhumation, expectation, expiration, explanation, explication, exploitation, exploration, fabrication, fascination, federation, fermentation, fibrillation, figuration, filling station, fire station, fluctuation, fluoridation, foliation, formulation, fragmentation, fumigation, gastrulation, generation, gene mutation, germination, glaciation, graduation, granulation, gravitation, habitation, heat prostration, hesitation, hibernation, illustration, imitation, immigration, implantation, implication, importation, impregnation, imputation, incantation, incarnation, inclination, incrustation, incubation, indentation, indexation, indication, indignation, infestation, infiltration, inflammation, information, inhalation, innovation, inspiration, installation, instigation, insulation, integration, intimation, intonation, inundation, invitation, invocation, irrigation, irritation, isolation, jubilation, laceration, legislation, levitation, liberation, limitation, liquidation, litigation, loan translation, lookout station, lubrication, machination, malformation, masturbation, maturation, mediation, medication, meditation, menstruation, ministration, miscreation, miseration, mitigation, moderation, modulation, molestation, motivation, mutilation, navigation, nomination, nucleation, obfuscation, obligation, observation, occupation, operation, orchestration, ordination, oscillation, ostentation, ovulation, oxidation, pagination, paid vacation, pair creation, pair formation, palpitation, penetration, perforation, permutation, perspiration, perturbation, petrol station, pigmentation, point mutation, police station, pollination, polling station, population, power station, preparation, presentation, preservation, proclamation, procreation, profanation, propagation, protestation, provocation, publication, pumping station, punctuation, radiation, raft foundation, railroad station, railway station, realization, recantation, recitation, reclamation, recreation, reformation, refutation, registration, regulation, rehydration, relaxation, relocation, remote station, renovation, reparation, replication, reputation, reservation, resignation, respiration, restoration, retardation, revelation, revocation, rumination, sampling station, sanitation, saturation, segmentation, segregation, separation, sequestration, service station, simulation, situation, skin sensation, social station, speculation, stimulation, stipulation, strangulation, subluxation, subway station, suffocation, superstation, syndication, tabulation, taste sensation, termination, titillation, toleration, touch sensation, transformation, transplantation, transportation, trepidation, tribulation, tv station, unimation, univation, usurpation, vaccination, vacillation, validation, valuation, variation, vegetation, ventilation, vindication, violation, visitation, weather station

5 syllables:

abbreviation, abomination, acceleration, accommodation, accreditation, accumulation, across the nation, adjudication, administration, affiliation, African nation, agglomeration, alienation, alleviation, amalgamation, amelioration, amortization, amplification, annihilation, anticipation, appreciation, appropriation, approximation, argumentation, articulation, assassination, assimilation, association, authentication, authorization, balkanization, beat generation, business relation, capitulation, centralization, certification, change of location, christianization, civilization, clarification, classification, closed corporation, close corporation, coagulation, codification, cogeneration, cohabitation, collaboration, colonization, colorization, commemoration, communication, communization, concatenation, conciliation, confabulation, confederation, configuration, conglomeration, congratulation, consideration, consolidation, contamination, continuation, cooperation, coordination, corroboration, decaffeination, decapitation, deceleration, deforestation, degeneration, deification, deliberation, delineation, demodulation, demonization, denomination, denunciation, depreciation, deregulation, desalination, desegregation, determination, detoxication, devaluation, direct quotation, discoloration, discrimination, disembarkation, disinclination, disinformation, disintegration, dissemination, dissociation, documentation, domestication, dramatization, echolocation, edification, ejaculation, elaboration, elimination, emancipation, enumeration, equalization, equivocation, eradication, evacuation, evaluation, evaporation, exacerbation, exaggeration, examination, exasperation, exfoliation, exhilaration, exoneration, expatriation, expropriation, extermination, extrapolation, facilitation, falsification, fertilization, finlandization, fortification, gasification, gasoline station, genetization, gentrification, globalization, glorification, grade separation, gratification, hallucination, harmonization, heat of formation, humiliation, hybridization, hydrogenation, hyperinflation, illumination, imagination, immunization, impersonation, implementation, improvisation, inactivation, inauguration, incarceration, incorporation, incrimination, indoctrination, infatuation, inhabitation, initiation, inoculation, insemination, insinuation, instrumentation, interpretation, interrogation, intimidation, intoxication, invalidation, investigation, in operation, in that location, ionization, irradiation, islamization, job application, justification, legalization, legal relation, liberalization, loan application, localization, machine translation, magnetization, magnification, manifestation, manipulation, maximization, mean deviation, mechanization, misallocation, misapplication, miscalculation, misinformation, mobilization, modernization, modification, multiplication, mummification, negotiation, nervous prostration, neutralization, normalization, notification, nullification, oil conservation, optimization, organisation, organization, orientation, origination, ornamentation, ossification, pacification, painful sensation, panelization, participation, partner relation, pasteurization, perpetuation, phase modulation, phi correlation, polarization, polish notation, pontification, precipitation, predestination, prefabrication, prefix notation, premeditation, preoccupation, pressure sensation, pressurization, private foundation, privatisation, privatization, procrastination, prognostication, proliferation, pronunciation, pulse modulation, purification, qualification, quantification, radio station, ramification, rate of inflation, ratification, reaffirmation, reallocation, recalculation, recommendation, reconfirmation, recrimination, rectification, recuperation, redecoration, rededication, reforestation, refrigeration, regeneration, regimentation, reincarnation, reiteration, rejuvenation, remediation, remuneration, renomination, renunciation, repatriation, representation, repudiation, reregulation, resuscitation, retaliation, revaluation, reverberation, russification, sanctification, sedimentation, set decoration, sex segregation, shell corporation, simplification, skew correlation, socialization, social relation, soil conservation, solicitation, sophistication, spatial relation, specialization, specification, stabilization, stalinization, standardization, standing ovation, star divination, sterilization, subordination, subsidization, substantiation, suffix notation, tabloidization, tactile sensation, triangulation, trust corporation, tubal ligation, unification, unionization, urbanization, utilization, vaporization, veiled accusation, verbal creation, verification, victimization, vilification, visualization, vulgarization, westernization, wind generation, with inspiration, with moderation, with ostentation, with speculation

6 syllables:

acidification, active application, adult education, alphabetization, alpha radiation, artistic creation, auto limitation, axis of rotation, background radiation, beta radiation, binary notation, blood coagulation, board of education, broad interpretation, bush administration, cannibalization, capitalization, categorization, change orientation, characterization, chemical notation, collectivization, commercialization, complement fixation, computerization, control operation, counter reformation, covert operation, credit application, criminalization, cryptic coloration, daily variation, decentralization, decertification, decimal notation, decontamination, dehumanization, demobilization, democratization, demoralization, desalinization, destabilization, detoxification, de jure segregation, differentiation, direct correlation, discontinuation, disorganization, disorientation, disqualification, diversification, dust contamination, electrification, eternal damnation, European nation, excommunication, experimentation, feast of dedication, field of operation, free association, gamma radiation, generalization, giving medication, group participation, heat of condensation, higher education, hospitalization, incapacitation, incoordination, indemnification, infantile fixation, inside information, insubordination, intensification, intercorporation, in collaboration, law of gravitation, law of segregation, lecture demonstration, legal separation, line organization, linguistic relation, loan participation, logical relation, logic operation, machine operation, magnitude relation, marginalization, medical relation, mental reservation, mental retardation, mineralization, misappropriation, miscommunication, misinterpretation, misrepresentation, missionary station, monopolization, moral obligation, mortgage application, musical notation, nationalization, naturalization, naval installation, neutron radiation, nitrogen fixation, nondiscrimination, nonproliferation, observation station, oral presentation, overpopulation, overregulation, overt operation, overvaluation, partial correlation, part to whole relation, patent application, personalization, personal relation, personification, politicization, popularization, printing operation, private corporation, public presentation, racial segregation, radicalization, rationalization, reaffiliation, reauthorization, recertification, reclassification, reconciliation, reconfiguration, reconsideration, reevaluation, reexamination, rehabilitation, reincorporation, reinterpretation, reinvigoration, renegotiation, reorganization, reunification, revitalization, saponification, securitization, self-congratulation, self-determination, self-perpetuation, semantic relation, sexual relation, singularization, solar radiation, special education, standard deviation, suburbanization, Swiss confederation, television station, temporal relation, threshold operation, transillumination, undervaluation, vacuum aspiration, visual sensation, warning coloration, water conservation, water of hydration, whole to part relation, without moderation, with consideration, with determination, workmen's compensation, world organization

7 syllables:

academic relation, acid precipitation, americanization, amplitude modulation, angle of inclination, antidiscrimination, antitrust legislation, auditory sensation, baptist denomination, binary operation, business organization, by experimentation, carter administration, celestial navigation, clandestine operation, Clinton administration, closely held corporation, cognitive operation, computer operation, concrete representation, concurrent operation, conditional relation, criminal conversation, dark field illumination, dark ground illumination, data communication, decriminalization, demand for explanation, demilitarization, denationalization, denuclearization, destructive distillation, de facto segregation, diurnal variation, doctor of education, electron radiation, feast of the dedication, final examination, financial obligation, fourfold point correlation, fractional distillation, frequency modulation, grammatical relation, guilt by association, heat of dissociation, heat of vaporization, Indian reservation, indirect correlation, industrialization, inertial navigation, infrared radiation, insider information, judicial separation, kendall rank correlation, legal representation, logical implication, logical operation, lukasiewicz notation, magnetic inclination, magnetic levitation, magnetic variation, master of education, mental representation, midterm examination, military formation, miniaturization, mischaracterization, misidentification, multiplex operation, natural elevation, negative correlation, negative stimulation, north American nation, olfactory sensation, optical aberration, oral communication, oral examination, parallel operation, philanthropic foundation, physical education, physical restoration, point of accumulation, police investigation, political relation, positive correlation, practical application, professional relation, protective coloration, psychic communication, racial extermination, radio observation, radio radiation, rate of acceleration, rate of depreciation, Reagan administration, recapitalization, renationalization, reverse polish notation, right of first publication, Scandinavian nation, selective information, sequential operation, serial operation, serial publication, social organization, software documentation, source of illumination, south American nation, spherical aberration, spurious correlation, surface assimilation, surgical operation, suspended animation, sympathetic vibration, telecommunication, telephone conversation, under consideration, unspoken accusation, value orientation, vertical combination, vertical integration, victory celebration, visible radiation, without consideration, world health organization, written communication

8 syllables:

aegean civilization, amphibious demonstration, amphibious operation, animal communication, arithmetic operation, artificial respiration, asynchronous operation, auxiliary operation, behavior modification, cardiac resuscitation, central American nation, character assassination, confidential information, consecutive operation, department of education, department of transportation, digital communication, economic strangulation, elementary education, enabling legislation, fiduciary relation, financial organization, freedom from discrimination, geological formation, holy day of obligation, horizontal combination, horizontal integration, institutionalization, intelligence operation, interior decoration, internal representation, internationalization, letters of administration, linguistic communication, literal interpretation, majority operation, mathematical notation, mathematical relation, medical examination, military installation, Minoan civilization, musical organization, newton's law of gravitation, nonlinear correlation, postmortem examination, privately held corporation, protestant denomination, psychical communication, religious orientation, secondary education, spontaneous generation, symbolic representation, unemployment compensation, ventricular fibrillation, visual communication, vocational education

9 syllables:

anabaptist denomination, anomalous communication, articles of incorporation, artificial insemination, auditory communication, coefficient of correlation, deinstitutionalization, economic mobilization, electronic communication, el nino southern oscillation, health maintenance organization, hydrogen ion concentration, kendall partial rank correlation, mathematical operation, mycenaean civilization, myocardial inflammation, pecuniary obligation, physical rehabilitation, pictorial representation, political orientation, professional association, proportional representation, reasoning by elimination, savings and loan association, secretary of education, secretary of transportation, simultaneous operation, through empirical observation, ultraviolet radiation

10 syllables:

certificate of incorporation, correctional rehabilitation, electromagnetic radiation, federal housing administration, international organization, preliminary examination, therapeutic rehabilitation, ultraviolet illumination, vocational rehabilitation

11 syllables:

binary arithmetic operation, federal bureau of investigation, federal home loan mortgage corporation, food and agriculture organization, international finance corporation, north Atlantic treaty organization, paramilitary organization, social security administration

12 syllables:

cardiopulmonary resuscitation, international labor organization, international labour organization, simulated military operation

13 syllables:

federal deposit insurance corporation, federal national mortgage association, international maritime organization, world meteorological organization

14 syllables:

international development association, national aeronautics and space administration

1 answer


•tantrist •guitarist, scenarist, tsarist •sitarist • memoirist • belletrist •centrist • Marist • sacrist •lyrist, panegyrist •equilibrist • interest •optometrist, psychometrist, sociometrist •satirist •afforest, florist, forest, Forrest •rainforest • folklorist •careerist, querist, theorist •plagiarist • meliorist • apiarist •topiarist • diarist • psychiatrist •jurist, purist, tourist •obituarist • caricaturist • pedicurist •manicurist • sinecurist • naturist •miniaturist • futurist •agriculturist, apiculturist, arboriculturist, horticulturist, pisciculturist, sericulturist, silviculturist, viniculturist, viticulturist •acupuncturist • welfarist • allegorist •Eucharist • artillerist • secularist •particularist •colourist (US colorist) •amorist • ephemerist • mesmerist •consumerist, humorist •mannerist • tenorist • seminarist •terrorist • adventurist • detectorist •documentarist • militarist •monetarist • lepidopterist •motorist, votarist •scooterist • voluntarist • zitherist •Everest • aquarist • auteurist
Main Forest

3 answers


It borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania, Moldova (including the breakaway Pridnestrovie) to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev (Kyiv) is both the capital and the largest city of Ukraine.

The nation's modern history began with that of the East Slavs. From at least the 9th century, the territory of Ukraine was a center of the medieval Varangian-dominated East Slavic civilization, forming the state of Kievan Rus' which disintegrated in the 12th century. From the 14th century on, the territory of Ukraine was divided among a number of regional powers, and by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire, with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. After a chaotic period of incessant warfare and several attempts at independence (1917-21) following World War I and the Russian Civil War, Ukraine emerged in 1922 as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic's territory was enlarged westward shortly before and after World War II, and again in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the co-founding members of the United Nations.[4] Ukraine became independent again after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This began a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine was stricken with an eight year recession.[5] Since then, the economy has been experiencing a stable increase, with real GDP growth averaging eight percent annually.

Ukraine is a unitary state composed of 24 oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Crimea), and two cities with special status: Kiev, its capital, and Sevastopol, which houses the Russian Black Sea Fleet under a leasing agreement. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Since the collapse of the USSR, Ukraine continues to maintain the second largest military in Europe, after that of Russia. The country is home to 46.2 million people, 77.8 percent of whom are ethnic Ukrainians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Belarusians and Romanians. The Ukrainian language is the only official language in Ukraine, while Russian is also widely spoken and is known to most Ukrainians as a second language. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has heavily influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music.

Early historyHuman settlement in the territory of Ukraine dates back to at least 4500 BC, when the Neolithic Cucuteni culture flourished in a wide area that covered parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[6] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia. Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was part of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions and the land fell into the Khazars' hands. [edit] Golden Age of KievMain article: Kievan Rus'Map of the Kievan Rus' in the 11th century. During the Golden Age of Kiev, the lands of Rus' covered much of present day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia.

In the 9th century, much of modern-day Ukraine was populated by the Rus' people who formed the Kievan Rus'. Kievan Rus' included nearely all territory of modern Ukraine, Belarus, with larger part of it situated on the territory of modern Russia. During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.[3] In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.[7] Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia. The Varangians later became assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus' first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.[7] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (Old East Slavic: Володимеръ Святославичь, Volodymyr, 980-1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (Russian: Ярослав Мудрый) (1019-1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[7] This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (Russian: Мстислав Владимирович) (1125-1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes ,such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north.[8] The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240.[9] On the Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Galich (Halych) and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.

[edit] Foreign dominationSee also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Polish Kingdom, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian EmpireIn the centuries following the Mongol invasion, much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland, as seen at this outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as of 1619.

"Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire." Painted by Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891.

In the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia was subjugated by Casimir the Great of Poland, while the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the Gediminas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krevo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, most of Ukraine's territory was controlled by the increasingly Ruthenized local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At this time, the term Ruthenia and Ruthenians as the Latinized versions of "Rus'", became widely applied to the land and the people of Ukraine, respectively.[10]

By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from largely Ruthenized Lithuanian rule to the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the Polish Crown. Under the cultural and political pressure of Polonisation much of the Ruthenian upper class converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.[11] Thus, the Ukrainian commoners, deprived of their native protectors among Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to the Cossacks, who remained fiercely orthodox at all times and tended to turn to violence against those they perceived as enemies, particularly the Polish state and its representatives.[12] Ukraine suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage and capture slaves into jasyr.[13]

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom.[14] Poland had little real control of this land (Wild Fields), yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful fighting force against the Turks and Tatars, and at times the two allied in military campaigns.[15] However, the continued enserfment of peasantry by the Polish nobility emphasized by the Commonwealth's fierce exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.[15] Their aspiration was to have representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were all vehemently denied by the Polish nobility. The Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state,[14] and the preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.[16]

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir.[17] Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western Ukrainian Galicia was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest offices of Russian state, and the Russian Orthodox Church.[a] At a later period, the tsarist regime carried the policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.[18]

[edit] World War I and revolutionMain article: Ukrainian War of IndependenceSee also: Ukraine in World War I, Russian Civil War, and Ukraine after the Russian Revolution

Ukraine entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. During the war, Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post World War I period (1919-23). Those suspected of the Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).[19]Soldiers of the Ukrainian People's Army

With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires following World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged. During 1917-20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory. In the midst of Civil War, an anarchist movement called the Black Army led by Nestor Makhno also developed in Southern Ukraine.[20] However with Western Ukraine's defeat in the Polish-Ukrainian War followed by the failure of the further Polish offensive that was repelled by the Bolsheviks. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland who in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919, that later became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December, 1922.[21]

[edit] Interwar Soviet UkraineSoviet recruitment poster featuring the Ukrainisation theme. The text reads: "Son! Enroll in the school of Red commanders, and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured." The poster uses traditional Ukrainian imagery and Ukrainian-language text.

The revolution that brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. The Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921.[22] Seeing the exhausted society, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s.[23] Thus, the Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy.[21] The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.[24] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.[25] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early-1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader and a dictator of the Soviet Union.DniproGES hydroelectric power plant under construction circa 1930

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled in the 1930s.[21] However, the industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforcing the policies by the regular troops and secret police.[21] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until the unachievable quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became widespread. In 1932-33, millions starved to death in a man-made famine known as Holodomor.[c] Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and more than a dozen other countries recognise it as the genocide of the Ukrainian people.[c]

The times of industrialisation and Holodomor also coincided with the Soviet assault on the national political and cultural elite often accused in "nationalist deviations". Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929-34 and 1936-38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three quarters of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.[21][b]

[edit] World War IISee also: Eastern Front (World War II)Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the Dnieper (the sign reads "To Kiev!") in the 1943 Battle of the Dnieper

Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.[26][27]

After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.

German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance by the Red Army and by the local population. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.[28][29] Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[30] some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942) that at times engaged the Nazi forces; while another nationalist movement fought alongside the Nazis. In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians that fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[30] to 7 million.[31][d] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 48 percent of them being ethnic Ukrainians.[32] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as much as 100,000 fighters.[33][34]Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kiev

Initially, the Germans were even received as liberators by some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939. However, brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against the occupation. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the population of Ukrainian territories' dissatisfaction with Stalinist political and economic policies.[35] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported others to work in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine to prepare it for German colonisation,[35] which included a food blockade on Kiev.

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front,[36] and Nazi Germany suffered 93 percent of all casualties there.[37] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between five and eight million,[38][39] including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis,[40][41][42] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[42][40][d][e] So to this day, Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.[43]

[edit] Post-World War IISee also: History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985) and History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)Sergey Korolyov, the head Soviet rocket engineer and designer during the Space Race

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[44] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946-47 caused by the drought and the infrastructure breakdown that took away tens of thousands of lives.[45]

The nationalist anti-Soviet resistance lasted for years after the war, chiefly in Western Ukraine, but also in other regions.[46] The Ukrainian Insurgent Army, continued to fight the USSR into the 1950s. Using guerrilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.[47][48]

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Being the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938-49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic and after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[49]

Already by the 1950s, the republic fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[50] It also became an important center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev, who would later oust Khrushchev and become the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982, as well as many prominent Soviet sportspeople, scientists and artists.

On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[51][52] At the time of the accident seven million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.[53] After the accident, a new city, Slavutych, was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. Around 150,000 people were evacuated from the contaminated area, and 300,000-600,000 took part in the cleanup. By 2000, about 4,000 Ukrainian children had been diagnosed with thyroid cancer caused by radiation released by this incident.[54] Other Chernobyl disaster effects include other forms of cancer and genetic abnormalities, affecting newborns and children in particular.

[edit] IndependenceOn July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[55] The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.[56] A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[57]Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the Independence Square in Kiev on November 22, 2004

Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[58] However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[59][60] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[61] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.[62]

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.[63][5] A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for concentrating too much of power in his office, corruption, transferring public property into hands of loyal oligarchs, discouraging free speech, and electoral fraud.[64] In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[65] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the results and led the peaceful Orange Revolution. The revolution brought Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.[66]

1 answer


It borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania, Moldova (including the breakaway Pridnestrovie) to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev (Kyiv) is both the capital and the largest city of Ukraine.

The nation's modern history began with that of the East Slavs. From at least the 9th century, the territory of Ukraine was a center of the medieval Varangian-dominated East Slavic civilization, forming the state of Kievan Rus' which disintegrated in the 12th century. From the 14th century on, the territory of Ukraine was divided among a number of regional powers, and by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire, with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. After a chaotic period of incessant warfare and several attempts at independence (1917-21) following World War I and the Russian Civil War, Ukraine emerged in 1922 as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic's territory was enlarged westward shortly before and after World War II, and again in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the co-founding members of the United Nations.[4] Ukraine became independent again after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This began a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine was stricken with an eight year recession.[5] Since then, the economy has been experiencing a stable increase, with real GDP growth averaging eight percent annually.

Ukraine is a unitary state composed of 24 oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Crimea), and two cities with special status: Kiev, its capital, and Sevastopol, which houses the Russian Black Sea Fleet under a leasing agreement. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Since the collapse of the USSR, Ukraine continues to maintain the second largest military in Europe, after that of Russia. The country is home to 46.2 million people, 77.8 percent of whom are ethnic Ukrainians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Belarusians and Romanians. The Ukrainian language is the only official language in Ukraine, while Russian is also widely spoken and is known to most Ukrainians as a second language. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has heavily influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music.

Early historyHuman settlement in the territory of Ukraine dates back to at least 4500 BC, when the Neolithic Cucuteni culture flourished in a wide area that covered parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[6] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia. Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was part of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions and the land fell into the Khazars' hands. [edit] Golden Age of KievMain article: Kievan Rus'Map of the Kievan Rus' in the 11th century. During the Golden Age of Kiev, the lands of Rus' covered much of present day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia.

In the 9th century, much of modern-day Ukraine was populated by the Rus' people who formed the Kievan Rus'. Kievan Rus' included nearely all territory of modern Ukraine, Belarus, with larger part of it situated on the territory of modern Russia. During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.[3] In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.[7] Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia. The Varangians later became assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus' first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.[7] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (Old East Slavic: Володимеръ Святославичь, Volodymyr, 980-1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (Russian: Ярослав Мудрый) (1019-1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[7] This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (Russian: Мстислав Владимирович) (1125-1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes ,such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north.[8] The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240.[9] On the Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Galich (Halych) and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.

[edit] Foreign dominationSee also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Polish Kingdom, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian EmpireIn the centuries following the Mongol invasion, much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland, as seen at this outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as of 1619.

"Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire." Painted by Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891.

In the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia was subjugated by Casimir the Great of Poland, while the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the Gediminas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krevo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, most of Ukraine's territory was controlled by the increasingly Ruthenized local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At this time, the term Ruthenia and Ruthenians as the Latinized versions of "Rus'", became widely applied to the land and the people of Ukraine, respectively.[10]

By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from largely Ruthenized Lithuanian rule to the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the Polish Crown. Under the cultural and political pressure of Polonisation much of the Ruthenian upper class converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.[11] Thus, the Ukrainian commoners, deprived of their native protectors among Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to the Cossacks, who remained fiercely orthodox at all times and tended to turn to violence against those they perceived as enemies, particularly the Polish state and its representatives.[12] Ukraine suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage and capture slaves into jasyr.[13]

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom.[14] Poland had little real control of this land (Wild Fields), yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful fighting force against the Turks and Tatars, and at times the two allied in military campaigns.[15] However, the continued enserfment of peasantry by the Polish nobility emphasized by the Commonwealth's fierce exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.[15] Their aspiration was to have representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were all vehemently denied by the Polish nobility. The Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state,[14] and the preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.[16]

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir.[17] Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western Ukrainian Galicia was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest offices of Russian state, and the Russian Orthodox Church.[a] At a later period, the tsarist regime carried the policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.[18]

[edit] World War I and revolutionMain article: Ukrainian War of IndependenceSee also: Ukraine in World War I, Russian Civil War, and Ukraine after the Russian Revolution

Ukraine entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. During the war, Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post World War I period (1919-23). Those suspected of the Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).[19]Soldiers of the Ukrainian People's Army

With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires following World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged. During 1917-20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory. In the midst of Civil War, an anarchist movement called the Black Army led by Nestor Makhno also developed in Southern Ukraine.[20] However with Western Ukraine's defeat in the Polish-Ukrainian War followed by the failure of the further Polish offensive that was repelled by the Bolsheviks. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland who in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919, that later became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December, 1922.[21]

[edit] Interwar Soviet UkraineSoviet recruitment poster featuring the Ukrainisation theme. The text reads: "Son! Enroll in the school of Red commanders, and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured." The poster uses traditional Ukrainian imagery and Ukrainian-language text.

The revolution that brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. The Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921.[22] Seeing the exhausted society, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s.[23] Thus, the Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy.[21] The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.[24] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.[25] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early-1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader and a dictator of the Soviet Union.DniproGES hydroelectric power plant under construction circa 1930

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled in the 1930s.[21] However, the industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforcing the policies by the regular troops and secret police.[21] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until the unachievable quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became widespread. In 1932-33, millions starved to death in a man-made famine known as Holodomor.[c] Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and more than a dozen other countries recognise it as the genocide of the Ukrainian people.[c]

The times of industrialisation and Holodomor also coincided with the Soviet assault on the national political and cultural elite often accused in "nationalist deviations". Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929-34 and 1936-38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three quarters of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.[21][b]

[edit] World War IISee also: Eastern Front (World War II)Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the Dnieper (the sign reads "To Kiev!") in the 1943 Battle of the Dnieper

Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.[26][27]

After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.

German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance by the Red Army and by the local population. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.[28][29] Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[30] some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942) that at times engaged the Nazi forces; while another nationalist movement fought alongside the Nazis. In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians that fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[30] to 7 million.[31][d] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 48 percent of them being ethnic Ukrainians.[32] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as much as 100,000 fighters.[33][34]Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kiev

Initially, the Germans were even received as liberators by some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939. However, brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against the occupation. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the population of Ukrainian territories' dissatisfaction with Stalinist political and economic policies.[35] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported others to work in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine to prepare it for German colonisation,[35] which included a food blockade on Kiev.

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front,[36] and Nazi Germany suffered 93 percent of all casualties there.[37] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between five and eight million,[38][39] including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis,[40][41][42] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[42][40][d][e] So to this day, Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.[43]

[edit] Post-World War IISee also: History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985) and History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)Sergey Korolyov, the head Soviet rocket engineer and designer during the Space Race

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[44] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946-47 caused by the drought and the infrastructure breakdown that took away tens of thousands of lives.[45]

The nationalist anti-Soviet resistance lasted for years after the war, chiefly in Western Ukraine, but also in other regions.[46] The Ukrainian Insurgent Army, continued to fight the USSR into the 1950s. Using guerrilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.[47][48]

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Being the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938-49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic and after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[49]

Already by the 1950s, the republic fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[50] It also became an important center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev, who would later oust Khrushchev and become the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982, as well as many prominent Soviet sportspeople, scientists and artists.

On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[51][52] At the time of the accident seven million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.[53] After the accident, a new city, Slavutych, was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. Around 150,000 people were evacuated from the contaminated area, and 300,000-600,000 took part in the cleanup. By 2000, about 4,000 Ukrainian children had been diagnosed with thyroid cancer caused by radiation released by this incident.[54] Other Chernobyl disaster effects include other forms of cancer and genetic abnormalities, affecting newborns and children in particular.

[edit] IndependenceOn July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[55] The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.[56] A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[57]Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the Independence Square in Kiev on November 22, 2004

Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[58] However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[59][60] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[61] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.[62]

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.[63][5] A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for concentrating too much of power in his office, corruption, transferring public property into hands of loyal oligarchs, discouraging free speech, and electoral fraud.[64] In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[65] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the results and led the peaceful Orange Revolution. The revolution brought Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.[66]

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It borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania, Moldova (including the breakaway Pridnestrovie) to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev (Kyiv) is both the capital and the largest city of Ukraine.

The nation's modern history began with that of the East Slavs. From at least the 9th century, the territory of Ukraine was a center of the medieval Varangian-dominated East Slavic civilization, forming the state of Kievan Rus' which disintegrated in the 12th century. From the 14th century on, the territory of Ukraine was divided among a number of regional powers, and by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire, with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. After a chaotic period of incessant warfare and several attempts at independence (1917-21) following World War I and the Russian Civil War, Ukraine emerged in 1922 as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic's territory was enlarged westward shortly before and after World War II, and again in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the co-founding members of the United Nations.[4] Ukraine became independent again after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This began a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine was stricken with an eight year recession.[5] Since then, the economy has been experiencing a stable increase, with real GDP growth averaging eight percent annually.

Ukraine is a unitary state composed of 24 oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Crimea), and two cities with special status: Kiev, its capital, and Sevastopol, which houses the Russian Black Sea Fleet under a leasing agreement. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Since the collapse of the USSR, Ukraine continues to maintain the second largest military in Europe, after that of Russia. The country is home to 46.2 million people, 77.8 percent of whom are ethnic Ukrainians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Belarusians and Romanians. The Ukrainian language is the only official language in Ukraine, while Russian is also widely spoken and is known to most Ukrainians as a second language. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has heavily influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music.

Early historyHuman settlement in the territory of Ukraine dates back to at least 4500 BC, when the Neolithic Cucuteni culture flourished in a wide area that covered parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[6] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia. Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was part of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions and the land fell into the Khazars' hands. [edit] Golden Age of KievMain article: Kievan Rus'Map of the Kievan Rus' in the 11th century. During the Golden Age of Kiev, the lands of Rus' covered much of present day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia.

In the 9th century, much of modern-day Ukraine was populated by the Rus' people who formed the Kievan Rus'. Kievan Rus' included nearely all territory of modern Ukraine, Belarus, with larger part of it situated on the territory of modern Russia. During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.[3] In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.[7] Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia. The Varangians later became assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus' first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.[7] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (Old East Slavic: Володимеръ Святославичь, Volodymyr, 980-1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (Russian: Ярослав Мудрый) (1019-1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[7] This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (Russian: Мстислав Владимирович) (1125-1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes ,such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north.[8] The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240.[9] On the Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Galich (Halych) and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.

[edit] Foreign dominationSee also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Polish Kingdom, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian EmpireIn the centuries following the Mongol invasion, much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland, as seen at this outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as of 1619.

"Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire." Painted by Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891.

In the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia was subjugated by Casimir the Great of Poland, while the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the Gediminas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krevo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, most of Ukraine's territory was controlled by the increasingly Ruthenized local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At this time, the term Ruthenia and Ruthenians as the Latinized versions of "Rus'", became widely applied to the land and the people of Ukraine, respectively.[10]

By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from largely Ruthenized Lithuanian rule to the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the Polish Crown. Under the cultural and political pressure of Polonisation much of the Ruthenian upper class converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.[11] Thus, the Ukrainian commoners, deprived of their native protectors among Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to the Cossacks, who remained fiercely orthodox at all times and tended to turn to violence against those they perceived as enemies, particularly the Polish state and its representatives.[12] Ukraine suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage and capture slaves into jasyr.[13]

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom.[14] Poland had little real control of this land (Wild Fields), yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful fighting force against the Turks and Tatars, and at times the two allied in military campaigns.[15] However, the continued enserfment of peasantry by the Polish nobility emphasized by the Commonwealth's fierce exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.[15] Their aspiration was to have representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were all vehemently denied by the Polish nobility. The Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state,[14] and the preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.[16]

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir.[17] Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western Ukrainian Galicia was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest offices of Russian state, and the Russian Orthodox Church.[a] At a later period, the tsarist regime carried the policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.[18]

[edit] World War I and revolutionMain article: Ukrainian War of IndependenceSee also: Ukraine in World War I, Russian Civil War, and Ukraine after the Russian Revolution

Ukraine entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. During the war, Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post World War I period (1919-23). Those suspected of the Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).[19]Soldiers of the Ukrainian People's Army

With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires following World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged. During 1917-20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory. In the midst of Civil War, an anarchist movement called the Black Army led by Nestor Makhno also developed in Southern Ukraine.[20] However with Western Ukraine's defeat in the Polish-Ukrainian War followed by the failure of the further Polish offensive that was repelled by the Bolsheviks. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland who in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919, that later became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December, 1922.[21]

[edit] Interwar Soviet UkraineSoviet recruitment poster featuring the Ukrainisation theme. The text reads: "Son! Enroll in the school of Red commanders, and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured." The poster uses traditional Ukrainian imagery and Ukrainian-language text.

The revolution that brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. The Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921.[22] Seeing the exhausted society, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s.[23] Thus, the Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy.[21] The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.[24] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.[25] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early-1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader and a dictator of the Soviet Union.DniproGES hydroelectric power plant under construction circa 1930

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled in the 1930s.[21] However, the industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforcing the policies by the regular troops and secret police.[21] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until the unachievable quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became widespread. In 1932-33, millions starved to death in a man-made famine known as Holodomor.[c] Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and more than a dozen other countries recognise it as the genocide of the Ukrainian people.[c]

The times of industrialisation and Holodomor also coincided with the Soviet assault on the national political and cultural elite often accused in "nationalist deviations". Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929-34 and 1936-38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three quarters of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.[21][b]

[edit] World War IISee also: Eastern Front (World War II)Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the Dnieper (the sign reads "To Kiev!") in the 1943 Battle of the Dnieper

Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.[26][27]

After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.

German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance by the Red Army and by the local population. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.[28][29] Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[30] some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942) that at times engaged the Nazi forces; while another nationalist movement fought alongside the Nazis. In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians that fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[30] to 7 million.[31][d] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 48 percent of them being ethnic Ukrainians.[32] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as much as 100,000 fighters.[33][34]Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kiev

Initially, the Germans were even received as liberators by some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939. However, brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against the occupation. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the population of Ukrainian territories' dissatisfaction with Stalinist political and economic policies.[35] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported others to work in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine to prepare it for German colonisation,[35] which included a food blockade on Kiev.

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front,[36] and Nazi Germany suffered 93 percent of all casualties there.[37] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between five and eight million,[38][39] including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis,[40][41][42] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[42][40][d][e] So to this day, Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.[43]

[edit] Post-World War IISee also: History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985) and History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)Sergey Korolyov, the head Soviet rocket engineer and designer during the Space Race

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[44] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946-47 caused by the drought and the infrastructure breakdown that took away tens of thousands of lives.[45]

The nationalist anti-Soviet resistance lasted for years after the war, chiefly in Western Ukraine, but also in other regions.[46] The Ukrainian Insurgent Army, continued to fight the USSR into the 1950s. Using guerrilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.[47][48]

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Being the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938-49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic and after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[49]

Already by the 1950s, the republic fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[50] It also became an important center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev, who would later oust Khrushchev and become the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982, as well as many prominent Soviet sportspeople, scientists and artists.

On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[51][52] At the time of the accident seven million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.[53] After the accident, a new city, Slavutych, was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. Around 150,000 people were evacuated from the contaminated area, and 300,000-600,000 took part in the cleanup. By 2000, about 4,000 Ukrainian children had been diagnosed with thyroid cancer caused by radiation released by this incident.[54] Other Chernobyl disaster effects include other forms of cancer and genetic abnormalities, affecting newborns and children in particular.

[edit] IndependenceOn July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[55] The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.[56] A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[57]Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the Independence Square in Kiev on November 22, 2004

Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[58] However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[59][60] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[61] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.[62]

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.[63][5] A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for concentrating too much of power in his office, corruption, transferring public property into hands of loyal oligarchs, discouraging free speech, and electoral fraud.[64] In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[65] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the results and led the peaceful Orange Revolution. The revolution brought Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.[66]

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