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This usually refers to a significant change of perception and/or change in mindset/attitude/vision, such as to significantly change the course of ones' life or organization. Some have referred to second chances in life as an example of change of paradigmatic thinking.
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In linguistics, syntagmatic relationships refer to the way words are arranged in a sentence, while paradigmatic relationships involve the substitution of one word for another within the same linguistic category.
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This usually refers to a significant change of perception and/or change in mindset/attitude/vision, such as to significantly change the course of ones' life or organization. Some have referred to second chances in life as an example of change of paradigmatic thinking.
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syntagmatic and paradigmatic belong to the European structrulism .
syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation are :
1/ SYNTAGMATIC RELATION : give us structur it's horizontal.exemple :I GO OUT . it's a simple sentence composed of subject verb and adverbI+GO+OUT =this aragment is syntagmatic .
2/ PARADIGMATIC RELATION : here i would like to start with an exemple in order to make it more clearer for you .exemple: I GO OUTI GO HOME
SHE GOES THERE
when we can replace one element by another one here we say that relation is syntagmatic .it's vertical paradigmatic give us a system .
by malike benahcene .
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Syntagmatic relations involve the linear arrangement of elements in a sequence, such as words in a sentence. Paradigmatic relations involve the selection of one element from a set of possible alternatives, such as choosing a specific word to fill a particular slot in a sentence.
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Paradigmatic structure refers to the relationship between elements within a linguistic system that can be substituted for one another. It involves analyzing how different linguistic elements relate to each other within a specific category or context. This structure helps to understand the similarities and differences between words or elements that share the same grammatical function or position.
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If it is a true or false question your answer is: False. :)
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because quantitative researchers have a positive paradigmatic stance, which opposes qualitative researchers stance who are interpretivist. Moreover, some positivists
believe qualitative research lacks scientific rigour.
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It pertains to a relationship between linguistic elements that can substitute for each other in a given context.. Take the word 'sun' as in 'the sun is shining'. Other nouns such as moon, star or light could be substituted for 'sun' in that sentence
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absolute, archetypal, classic, classical, complete, consummate, excellent, exemplary, fitting, flawless, have-it-all, indefectible, optimal, paradigmatic, pie-in-the-sky, prototypical, quintessential, representative, Shangri-la (slang), supreme. From: dictionary.com/thesaurus
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Immanuel Kant was an influential German philosopher known for his theory of transcendental idealism. He argued that our knowledge is shaped by the structure of our minds, and that certain a priori concepts like space, time, and causality are necessary for human experience. Kant's moral philosophy emphasized the importance of rationality, autonomy, and the categorical imperative as a universal moral principle.
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You can't; because his actions did prolong the Great Depression. The New Deal is a paradigmatic case of how to turn a downturn into a depression. That US leaders regard this as a model to follow does not speak very well of their economic literacy, and it doesn't bode well for our future. On the other hand, if you want to see how to handle a crisis, consider the Panic of 1819. Never heard of it? That's because it came and went, and that's because the government did nothing about it
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To practice philosophy is to live an examined life. To be a philosopher is to be a lover of wisdom. Since becoming wise does not happen automatically or accidentally, if we want to become wise we must seek wisdom. To seek wisdom is to practice philosophy. Since seekers are questioners, philosophers practice asking questions about wisdom. The paradigmatic example in western philosophy is Socrates.
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In western thought, an ethics of virtue was more popular in ancient Greece than today. The paradigmatic theory is Aristotle's from his NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. He argues that moral virtues are character traits that are ruined by either excess or deficiency. Here are 5 examples from his classic list: * being brave,which is a mean between being rash and being cowardly; * being temperate, which is a mean between being profligate and being insensitive; * being generous, which is a mean between being wasteful and being ungenerous; * being magnificent, which is a mean between being ostentatious and being niggardly; and * being truthful, which is a mean between being boastful and being self-deprecating.
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Somalia - the paradigmatic example of a failed state. The official government is less than a year old and controls only parts of the capital and a few small towns on the Ethiopian border. Prior to the past 12 months there was no government at all outside of the breakaway states of Somaliland and Puntland: Mogadishu, the capital, had no government of any kind (meaning no police, no public utilities, no laws - yes, no laws at all - not even traffic laws which wouldn't have helped anyway given the fact that there wasn't a single traffic light in the city of millions a year ago and most roads are washed out, unpaved disasters littered with the devastation of 2 decades of civil war).
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# As War is the lowest level of communication; any who drop bombs; is admitting: They Are Totally Lacking In The Ability of Logical communication. # Logos: 1. a.Cosmic reason, affirmed in ancient Greek phyliosephy as the source of world order and intelligibility. b. Reason or an expression of reason in words or things. 2. The self revealing truth and will of God, as set forth in the Gospel of John, often associated with the second person of the Trinity. [Greek logos, speech, reason.]. Logic: 1. Valid reasoning, especially as distinguished from invalid or irrational argumentation. 2. The paradigmatic relationship of element to element to whole. [Greek logike (tekhne), "(art of) reasoning." from Iogos, speech, reason.] # It is obvious, in this day and age: world order; intelligibility; are non existant. So There Are Wars!
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Yes. Like ripping a CD to listen to on your iPod, this is a form of "space-shifting", which is legitimate fair use. "Such copying is a paradigmatic noncommercial personal use."
Making a copy of media you own for personal use is widely accepted to be legal. Though a minority in the recording industry would like it to be considered copyright infringement, there is no legal precedent for this.
Ripping a CD is not allowed by copyright law, but is accepted by the record companies.
Note that space-shifting has been rejected in every case since the one quoted. When time-shifting was supported, it was never because making a full copy was considered fair use; it was simply found not to be infringing.
No; you paid for one copy, and now you have two.
Many self-published authors and small publishers do allow downloads once you've purchased the book, but this is uncommon.
A surprisingly balanced discussion can be found at the Reddit link below.
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The Latin word parere meaning to appear (for which word it is also the root) shows up in such words as compare, transparent, and apparition.
The English root "to pare", meaning to peel or shave is the root of paring as in a "paring knife", used to peel fruits and vegetables.
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Geometry must be looked at as the consummate, complete and paradigmatic reality given to us inconsequential from the Divine Revelation. These are the reasons why geometry is important:
- It hones one's thinking ability by using logical reasoning.
- It helps develop skills in deductive thinking which is applied in all other fields of learning.
- Artists use their knowledge of geometry in creating their master pieces.
- It is a useful groundwork for learning other branches of Mathematics.
- Students with knowledge of Geometry will have sufficient skills abstracting from the external world.
- Geometry facilitates the solution of problems from other fields since its principles are applicable to other disciplines.
- Knowledge of geometry is the best doorway towards other branches of Mathematics.
- It can be used in a wide array of scientific and technical field.
The importance of Geometry is further substantiated by the requirement that it is incorporated as a basic subject for all college students. An educated man has within his grasps mathematical skills together with the other qualities that make him a gentleman. Finally, what is the importance of Geometry? From a philosophical point of view, Geometry exposes the ultimate essence of the physical world.
You may want to enhance your learning by making use of the free geometry teaching resources on the web and simplified geometric definitions.
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From American Heritage Dictionary: Logos: 1. aCosmic reason, affirmed in ancient Greek phyliosephy as the source of world order and intelligibility. b. Reason or an expression of reason in words or things. 2. The self revealing truth and will of God, as set forth in the Gospel of John, often associated with the second person of the Trinity. [Greek logos, speech, reason.]. Logic: 1. Valid reasoning, especially as distinguished from invalid or irrational argumentation. 2. The paradigmatic relationship of element to element to whole. [Greek logike (tekhne), "(art of) reasoning." from Iogos, speech, reason.] Definition 2. in both definitions, requires the comprehension of The Book of John. one can not communicate accurately; without full comprehension of "logike" The art of reasonong. a.1st Element: That which is written; The word, or words. b. 2nd Element: Accurate and precise comprehension of 'a'. c. Whole: Aligne 'b' with what is already known, and can not be denied. A verification of what the word has caused in The Cosmos.
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From Adam to the Flood. The Bible gives evidence of the existence of lists of family relationships from man's beginning. At the birth of Adam's son Seth, Eve said: "God has appointed another seed in place of Abel, because Cain killed him." (Ge 4:25) Representatives of the line begun by Seth survived the Flood. (Ge 5:3-29, 32; 8:18; 1Pe 3:19, 20)
Cain's descendants are listed in part and include men who distinguished themselves in nomadic stock raising, the playing of musical instruments, and the forging of metal tools as well as those who were known for their practice of polygamy and their violence. (Gen. 4:17-24) Cain's line ended with the global Flood of Noah's day.
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1. She made the real transition from an imperial organisation to a free association of countries which shared historic links, democratic interests, culture, economic and military interests. Nowadays, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the UK are everlasting alleys that cooperate in education, economic, military and humanitarian affairs, thanks to the Queen.
2. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have had revolutionary and separatist groups, but the Queen started a reunification of the nation since the start of her reign (she gave a national flag to Wales and invested Prince Charles as Prince of Wales through a worldwide ceremony that highlighted welsh tradition; she has embraced scottish lifestyle, for example, spending all her summers there, encouraging scottish tradition as the 9 am bagpipe, walking Scotland as a commoner... She has given the scottish a scottish head of state. In Northern Ireland the Crown is the ultimate symbol of the union, so they remain in the kingdom pretty much for the Queen. She has always denied the possibility of a deep devolution of powers or separation. So, the UK has remained together thanks to the Queen.
3. She has chosen, advised and supervised 12 different administrations during her reign, and none of them has been deficient. So the continuity of an effective government has been guaranteed by the Queen's abide.
4. The Queen has become the paradigmatic head of state with her strong commitment to duty. She has never caused a constitutional crisis and she has executed all her responsibilities as head of all branches of power, step by step, without a single mistake. Even now, at 85, she works as hard as 60 years ago, and all prime ministers end up saying we got very lucky to have her as head of state. She is "an anchor of our time", as Ban Ki Moon said.
5. The Queen is head of more than 500 organisations that work for the benefit of the people of the UK and abroad, which makes her a tremendous force of good and change in the world.
A poll revealed Elizabeth II is considered by the british as one of the greatest britons ever, and constitutionalists as well as common people see her as one of the greatest monarchs the UK has had.
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the heart is in a constant state of adjustment , it will increase rate and decrease rate and pump harder , to meet the bodys demands, the heart dose not maintain hemostasis alone , hemostasis requires , lungs ,arteries, veins, kidneys, ect..
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Work- activity with a purpose (ie. activity aimed at the achievement of external goals, activity of instrumental value
Play- activity without purpose, ie. activity aimed at nothing more than itself, activity of intrinsic value.
On the first pass formulation, then Schlick's proposal can be captured as follows: The meaning of life consists of play.
The more one's life includes play, the more meaningful it is the less it includes play (focuses on work), the less meaningful it is.
The play theory of the meaning of life, for all its elegant simplicity, inspires an immediate objection.
In the real world, we must engage in work- to meet the needs of ourselves and others to live up to our duties, etc. Most of the time to be responsible. On Schlick's play theory leading to a meaningful life would amount to shirking responsibility by avoiding such work.
Schlick's Reply:
The needn't be conflict between play and responsibility.
Although some types of play may be irresponsible, aren't there some types of play that actually turn out to meet the needs of ourselves and others, to live up to our duties, etc.
This is because many types of play, although not valuable simply because they are aimed at the achievement of purposes, are nonetheless quite productive in terms of achieving these purposes.
Schlick goes on to call these productive responsibilities compatible types of play, instances of creative play.
Some paradigmatic examples of creative play:
Art
Science
On a slightly more careful 2nd pass formulation, Schlick's play theory of the meaning of life can be put this way:
the meaning of life consists of creative play.
The more one's life includes creative play, the more meaningful it is, the less it includes creative play, the less meaningful it is.
Schlick goes on to suggest that the secret to the meaning of life- the key to understanding how to make one's life meaningful- is to find ways to transform what otherwise might simply be instances of work in one's life into instances of creative play.
Provided we can come to see even our everyday productive activities as valuable in and of themselves-intrinsically valuable- we will in other words be turning our lives into deeply meaningful lives. Learn to see activities of creative play as intrinsically valuable.
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· Knowledge is produced on the basis of a non-reflexive epistemology (Bateson's "bad" epistemology).
· The knowledge produced is thus assumed to be "objective" and "true" (i.e. independent of the means of its production; ignorant of its genesis).
· This tends to have a psychologically limiting effect with respect to alternative knowledge and especially alternative modes of knowledge production. One's viewpoint becomes ossified.
· The unreflective assumption of the "truth" of the knowledge becomes justification for its projection, often forcefully, onto other people and processes in the environments surrounding the knower. A sense of conviction that the world is "like this" leads to inflexible protocols in our institutions and in our modes of interaction with others. In other words, outer processes are also ossified; they become sclerotic.
Calibration and Self-Calibration.But what does it mean to have a self-reflexive epistemology? The difference between the two types of epistemologies, non-self-relfexive and self-reflexive, can be described by the first and second order difference. A non-self-reflexive epistemology is a first-order epistemology, a process of creating knowledge that operates in a linear fashion. The knowledge it generates is not explicitly connected to the process of its generation, and thus does not act as a potential corrective to its mode of production. Epistemology is a tool for knowing; but with a non-self-reflexive epistemology, the tool's operation does not change the tool, so that no matter what job it is called to do, it re-instances any new creations in the manner and style of its past processes-regardless of what might be new in the situation it encounters. The kind of newness that comes from a linear epistemology is innovative, but not radical. It is well-suited to the kinds of knowledge domains that work towards technical, but not paradigmatic, advances.To use a term from cybernetics, a linear epistemology is not open to calibration. But this lack of openness to calibration is often not simply passive, but active: attempts at calibration are often either discarded or met with increasing rigidity, with a sort of "doubling-down" on the knowledge already produced by the epistemology, and an increasing unwillingness to change the process by which knowledge is produced. We could therefore describe this kind of epistemology as willfully ignorant. This can actually be quite beneficial in producing new knowledge (within the parameters already accepted by the epistemology), because it minimizes the recursive complexity and is more amenable to simplification. Reductionisms of all types, where all phenomena, regardless of their complexity, are explained only in terms of more simple (and often more abstract) entities, are linear epistemologies. Said differently, a linear epistemology allows one to ignore second-order alternatives. Most of modern scientific thinking rests on the back of linear epistemology, to which it is well-suited.
On the other hand, a self-reflexive epistemology is a second-order epistemology (see Table 1 below for a comparison of qualities). The process allows itself to be changed by the content it produces. It is thus an open epistemology that operates on the basis of a recursion between process and content. It is open to calibration, and not simply in a passive way, but actively: it seeks calibration of its own processes through an active monitoring of what it is generating. Whereas a linear epistemology tends to minimize calibrative influences (changes in the way it operates at a second-order level), a recursive epistemology actively embodies them at its heart; it is not merely open to calibration, but is self-calbrative. The linking of process and content in this recursive way is akin to the creation of a new type of sensitivity; we can metaphorically say that operating with a recursive epistemology is the development of a new type of higher sense-organ for a knowing system. This is another way of saying that what a system distinguishes distinguishes its distinguishing. Recursive epistemology is open to self-revision not only at the content level (which is also true of linear epistemologies, although there may still be a difference in their relative inertia to this change), but also at the process level. This means that the kind of newness it can potentially yield includes radical, as well as technical shifts. Radical shifts restructure the further possibilities that are available to the knowing system; they are paradigmatic shifts.
What is important to consider is that the recursion between knowledge and knowing (between content and process) actually applies to allepistemologies, even first-order epistemologies. It is simply that in the case of a first-order epistemology, the epistemology is not systemically inclusive of this fact; we could say that it is not sensitive to its own sensitivity. A second-order epistemology is sensitive to its sensitivities: it includes processes whose content is other processes. The most tightly recursive epistemologies have processes whose content is itself.
The Unknown and Unknowing.Every epistemology has its boundary, a place where it meets a kind of threshold of what it can so far distinguish to itself. Here again we have a first and second-order difference. The first-order level to this threshold is the possible content that could be revealed there, if only our knowing could continue across the threshold. This is the unknown, as a content. The second-order level to the threshold is the ongoing activity of the unknowing.A first-order epistemology meets its boundary only by virtue of the loss of what is seen as its potential content. The unknown is assumed to be a specific content that is just like the known in every way except that has yet to be brought to light, discovered, or found. These metaphors work from the assumption that knowledge is somehow waiting "out there" to be had, and the protocols for knowledge production are thus geared towards the transformation of the unknown into the known, often with forceful manipulation and through maximization of control procedures. The unknown is precisely what needs to be minimized, and processes that generate unknowing are therefore seen as barriers to further knowing, leading only to confusion and unclarity. The unknown is valued only negatively, as the not-yet-known. The not-yet-known is pulled through from the other side of the threshold and brought "down" to re-instance the same reality that the epistemology already operates within, as further proof of its existence. The first-order epistemology focuses on the content of what it produces, and derives from this content the very justification for its truth; it invests its validity in its facts.
A second-order epistemology meets its boundary also by virtue of what is not known, but in addition it values the unknowing as an active and potentially transformative process. What for the first-order epistemology is only a potential new content is for the second-order epistemology a potential new way of being. This is a higher-order content, and is not simply "out there" to be discovered but must be enacted to exist; it must be brought into being. The unknowing is thus taken to be an invitation, a doorway, and instead of taking the unknown and making it known through the same epistemological patterns, it opens the door to more unknowing. Enacting a second-order epistemology is to allow one's way of knowing to change, not just the content of what is known. Unknowing is thus valued as a transformative agent, as a source of not only new knowledge but new ways of living forward. For a second-order epistemology, unknowing is a feature to be actively worked with, even developed, rather than a bug to be squashed. Said another way, a linear epistemology does not know that it does not know, while a recursive epistemology does, and makes of this something new of itself. The active incorporation of processes that yield states of unknowing is a primary way that a recursive epistemology self-calibrates.
Table 1. A comparison of the qualities of linear and recursive epistemologies.
Linear Episetmology
Recursive Epistemology
Non-self-reflexive
Self-reflexive
First-order
Second-order
Process kept independent of content
Process changes in response to content
Truth is objective and "out there"
Truth is a way of relating process and content
Content-focused
Process-focused
Validation reflected by its content
Validation as ongoing content-process recursions
Tends toward technical innovation
Can yield paradigmatic shifts
Knowledge produced as "pieces"
Knowledge produced as "wholes"
Unknown as potentially known content
Unknowing as potentially
transformative process
Observer split from environment
Observer and environment are mutually constituted in one process
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acetic
achromatic
acoustic
acrobatic
acrostic
adiabatic
aesthetic
agnostic
alphabetic
altruistic
anachronistic
anaesthetic
analytic
anarchistic
anesthetic
animistic
antagonistic
antarctic
antibiotic
antic
anticlimactic
antipathetic
antiseptic
apathetic
aphoristic
apocalyptic
apologetic
apoplectic
aquatic
arctic
aristocratic
arithmetic
aromatic
arthritic
artistic
ascetic
aseptic
asthmatic
astigmatic
asymptotic
atavistic
atheistic
athletic
attic
authentic
autistic
autocratic
automatic
axiomatic
ballistic
bombastic
bureaucratic
cannibalistic
capitalistic
cataleptic
catalytic
cathartic
caustic
chaotic
characteristic
charismatic
chauvinistic
chiropractic
chromatic
cinematic
climactic
climatic
communistic
cosmetic
critic
cryptic
cybernetic
cystic
democratic
despotic
deterministic
diabetic
diacritic
diagnostic
diagrammatic
dialectic
didactic
dietetic
diplomatic
diuretic
dogmatic
domestic
dramatic
drastic
dynastic
dyspeptic
ecclesiastic
eclectic
ecliptic
ecstatic
egoistic
egotistic
elastic
electrolytic
electromagnetic
electrostatic
elliptic
emblematic
emetic
empathetic
emphatic
energetic
enigmatic
enthusiastic
epigrammatic
epileptic
erotic
erratic
esthetic
eulogistic
euphemistic
eutectic
evangelistic
exotic
fanatic
fantastic
fatalistic
fetishistic
feudalistic
frantic
frenetic
futuristic
galactic
genetic
gigantic
gymnastic
hectic
hedonistic
hepatic
heretic
hermaphroditic
hermetic
heuristic
holistic
humanistic
hypnotic
iconoclastic
idealistic
idiomatic
idiosyncratic
idiotic
imperialistic
impolitic
impressionistic
individualistic
inelastic
intergalactic
interscholastic
jingoistic
journalistic
kinematic
kinetic
lactic
legalistic
linguistic
logistic
lunatic
lymphatic
macrobiotic
magnetic
majestic
masochistic
materialistic
mechanistic
melodramatic
militaristic
mimetic
misogynistic
modernistic
monastic
monochromatic
monopolistic
monotheistic
moralistic
mystic
narcissistic
narcotic
nationalistic
naturalistic
neurotic
nihilistic
numismatic
operatic
opportunistic
optic
optimistic
orgiastic
orthodontic
osmotic
overenthusiastic
panchromatic
pancreatic
pantheistic
paradigmatic
paralytic
parasitic
parenthetic
paternalistic
pathetic
patriotic
pedantic
peptic
peripatetic
pessimistic
phlegmatic
phonetic
plastic
pluralistic
plutocratic
pneumatic
poetic
politic
polytheistic
pragmatic
prismatic
probabilistic
problematic
prognostic
prophetic
prophylactic
prosthetic
psychosomatic
psychotic
pugilistic
quadratic
quixotic
rationalistic
realistic
relativistic
rheumatic
ritualistic
robotic
romantic
rustic
sadistic
sarcastic
schematic
schismatic
scholastic
sciatic
sclerotic
semantic
semiautomatic
septic
simplistic
skeptic
socialistic
spastic
spiritualistic
splenetic
static
statistic
stochastic
stylistic
styptic
surrealistic
sybaritic
sycophantic
syllogistic
symbiotic
sympathetic
symptomatic
synergistic
syntactic
synthetic
syphilitic
systematic
tactic
theistic
thematic
theocratic
theoretic
therapeutic
thermoplastic
thermostatic
tic
transatlantic
traumatic
uncharacteristic
undemocratic
unenthusiastic
unpatriotic
unrealistic
unromantic
unsympathetic
voyeuristic
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IMPACT OF SOCIAL CHANGES ON EDUCATION
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. It may refer to the notion of social progress or socio cultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or to other social movements, such as Women's suffrage or the Civil rights movement. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. More generally, social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours or social relations.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE.
The role of education as an agent or instrument of social change and social development is widely recognized today. Social change may take place - when humans need change. When the existing social system or network of social institutions fails to meet the existing human needs and when new materials suggest better ways of meeting human needs.
Education can initiate social changes by bringing about a change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.
Earlier educational institutions and teachers used to show a specific way of life to the students and education was more a means of social control than an instrument of social change. Modern educational institutions do not place much emphasis upon transmitting a way of life to the students. The traditional education was meant for an unchanging static society not marked by any change. But today education aims at imparting knowledge. Education was associated with religion.
EDUCATION AND CULTURE
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge good judgement and wisdom. Durkheim sees education as the socialization of the younger generation. It is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously. Education has as one of its fundamental goals the imparting of culture from generation to generation. Culture is a growing whole. There can be no break in the continuity of culture. The cultural elements are passed on through the agents like family, school and other associations. All societies maintain themselves through their culture. Culture here refers to a set of beliefs, skills, art, literature, philosophy, religion, music etc which must be learned. This social heritage must be transmitted through social organizations. Education has this function of cultural transmission in all societies. The curriculum of a school ,its extra-curricular activities and the informal relationships among students and teachers communicate social skills and values. Through various activities school imparts values such as co-operation, team spirit, obedience, discipline etc. Education acts an integrative force in the society by communicating values that unites different sections of society. The school teach skills to the children which help them later to integrate within the culture of the society. Education in its formal or informal pattern has been performing this role since time immemorial. Education can be looked upon as process from this point of view also. Education has brought phenomenal changes in every aspect of man's life.
TYPE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
· Civilization change.
It refers to the dress, food habits, production technologies, communication system, etc.
· Cultural change
It is associated with new knowledge. Religion, rituals, arts, literature etc.
· Change in social relationship.
It is the relationship between the father and son, teacher and student, husband and wife, etc.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE.
· Geographical factors like climatic conditions that influence the climatic conditions.
· Psychological factors like motivation, individualization etc
· Sociological factors like social conflicts, modernization etc.
· Explosion of population
· The environmental factors like newly built cities, industrialized and urbanized natural environment.
· The scientific and technological factors like technical advancements, new inventions, modern machineries, tools, etc.
· The ideological factors like social philosophy, political philosophy and religious philosophy.
· The legislative factors like legislation on temple entry, banning child marriages etc.
· The impact of western civilisation and cultural diffusion
· Contact of people with different countries
· The level of education and literacy attained by the society
· Modernisation of the society
· New attitudes to wealth, work, saving and risk taking
· War, natural calamities, revolutions, migration of people, etc
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
According to V. R. Taneja "Education and social change is a two - way traffic. While education preserves, transmits and disseminates the whole culture, social change is the instrument and precondition of educational thought.
1. EDUCATION AS A CONDITION OF SOCIAL CHANGE.
It is noted that social change is impossible without education. Education makes the people aware of the inadequacies of the existing system and creates a craze for social reform. Many of the old superstitions, beliefs and outdated customs. Which is retard social progress, can be prevented by education. It is to be noted that many progressive reforms like Hindu Code Bill and Untouchability Removal Act remained ineffective due to the illiteracy of a large number of Indian people.
2. EDUCATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIAL CHANGE.
Education is considered as a powerful instrument for social change, because it deals mainly with the thought patterns and behavior patterns of younger generation. The axe of education can cut down the thick roots of traditional superstitions, ignorance and the backwardness. Education prepares the people for social change.
3. EDUCATION AS AN EFFECT OF SOCIAL CHANGE.
In the wake of social change, people become aware of the need for educational progress. The changes caused by the political upheaval, industrialization, technological progress and religious reform movements naturally demands more education in order to maintain social equilibrium. In India the enrollment in educational institutions has increased enormously since independence.
We can summarize the following relationship between education and social change in the following way:
· Education initiates the social change and gives them direction and purpose.
· Education creates the social reformers and leaders who consciously make all the efforts to bring about social changes.
· Education prepares the individual for social changes. It brings a change in the need - dispositions and also creates frustrations with the status quo.
· Education determines the nature of social changes, which ought to be brought about.
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In the late 20th century American, the cultural capital of corporations has replaced many human forms of capital. As we buy, wear, and eat logos, we become the henchmen and admen of the corporations, defining ourselves with respect to the social standing of the various corporations. Some would say that this is the new form of tribalism, that in sport corporate logos we ritualize and humanize them, we redefine the cultural capital of the corporations in human social terms. I would say that a state where culture is indistinguishable from logo and where the practice of culture risks infringement of private property is a state that values the corporate over the human. (Susan Willis, 1993: 132-133 per Cole, 1995: 365) ---- Have we come to this? In light of the rash of killings over Nike shoes in 1991 and the continued market dominance of the brand, clearly Nike exerts a significant social and psychological force on the American consumer. It is my assertion that Nike appeals to a buying public that treats fitness as a worthy individual goal which simultaneously imparts social identification. The question remains, how? Nike ads, when first released were "treated like new plays or books" (Katz, 1994:153). Through semiotic analysis of a number of Nike advertisements, I hope to uncover at least the clues to Nike's pull on public imagination. (The Media and Communications Site concerning semiotic analysis informs this discussion and stands as a great study aid and interesting read) I plan to work with a small number of Nike ads that speak to the entire genre, though a thorough analysis would include the Air Jordan series, the women-oriented "Empathy"campaign, and All Conditions Gear ads to name a few. I hope to incorporate a wider variety of Nike advertisements at a later date. Nike's ads, like any other business's, require interpretation. Some of this reading goes on at the conscious level, some unconsciously. As opposed to extremists on either side of the interpretative question, I fall most nearly to the constructivist point of view in that I view meaning as an interplay between text and the reader. Chandler writes, "Texts are full of indeterminacies which require the reader's active interpretation. We must draw not only on our knowledge of language, but on our knowledge of the world." Thus, readers of advertisements bring with them a surface knowledge of the language as well as a set of preconceived ideas about how to relate the ad to themselves. These mental templates are known as schemata. Examples of these may include ideas of the rebel, corporate businessman, or avant-garde artist as well as Southern Baptist churches, universities, or mechanics' garages. Ads work on a variety of different levels including, but not limited to, sign typology, paradigmatic meaning, psychological appeals, emotion, roles, values/beliefs, and knowledge. Again, the impact of an ad comes from the interplay between these various aspects of make-up and the reader's own notions about him/herself and the world. So, taking the "Test Your Faith" ad as our first example: Straight off, the reader finds him/herself thrust into the schema of religious worship. Not only must the viewer literally look up to the runner, but he/she receives the imperative to "Test your faith." The runner pictured appears in the midst of a run and rests easy in the knowledge of his own god-like attention to fitness. Likewise, the runner has no identity beyond his role in the ad. That is, we cannot see his face, giving him an added element of the unknown divine. The reader feels cowed looking from a subordinate position at the figure of the runner in his element. The text implies a direct connection between exercising (in this case, running) and religious questioning. (cp. Nike and the Sanctification of Sport in the History section of this project) The writers seem to suggest an element of transcendence possible in exercise, as well as the need to continually question who we are in relation to our gods and what we hold most sacred. For the runner in the ad, exercise is the object of sanctity. Yet the reader might inhabit a different role by placing themselves as the runner in the ad itself. Transported from reading a magazine to the middle of a run, filled with the sensual pleasure of using one's body, the reader identifies him/herself as the 'tester of faith.' And finding the purity of exercise within the soul, the reader can accept a measure of hearty self-congratulation. A slightly dissimilar angle for interpretation would be to imagine the set of causes or drives that propelled the runner in the ad from his home to the streets for a run. Recall Bauman's statement of drive for fit bodies. The measure of the individual in contemporary society rests upon the extent to which they exercise their body. Seeing the runner engaged in a long run should impel the reader to imagine their own set of values and desires. What would it take to get them on the streets for a run? How important is exercise to that person? The ad places fitness as a top priority and suggests that the reader must acknowledge the fitness culture, even if they do not take an active part. Finally, the gritty gray and white tones of the advertisement insinuate a harsh world in which running becomes an escape. Reading the ad, perhaps themselves members of such a life, viewers will immediately seek the release and redemption that running and exercise offer. Moving on to another example of running advertising, we look at "You either ran...": Again placed in the dichotomy between athletes and spectators, the reader need only answer one question. Have I run today? Respondents will fall neatly into two categories and can take with them the requisite set of emotions that come with their answer. Identification and affiliation with others, approval, self-worth, and pride all spring from the answer 'yes.' Meanwhile, shame (first and foremost) and ostracization from the 'in-crowd' leave a bitter taste in the mouths of those answering 'no.' Placing the runner against a neutral background gives the appearance of a void in which must be placed the sum of viewers' athletic endeavors. They will be judged and given admittance or refusal to the world that Nike's runner inhabits. The world of the ad is composed of little more than the runner and the bland sky behind him. For the reader, the added force of the text--almost taunting, by now--makes the point clear. You must belong. Katz asserts that "Nike's ads in track and field and running [magazines] have long been acknowledged to be as much a way to support the sport's means of communication as ways to sell gear" (119). While this may be letting Nike off a bit easy, the advertisements above demonstrably speak to an elite group of readers well-versed in the intricacies of running. ---- All these factors tie into the ongoing cultural formation of the fit body discussed in this project's Fitness Culture section. During the late 1980s, Nike attained a relative saturation of the U.S. market for athletic goods and apparel, leaving Nike executives wondering 'where do we go from here?' Appealing to a higher sense of excellence (arete, to borrow another Greek word married to the philosophy of Nike), Nike hoped to inculcate a sense of individual accomplishment possible in sport as well as play into that very same sense already budding in the breasts of consumers. Herein lies another example of the indivisibility of the fitness culture and Nike's place in it. Phil Knight on marketing: "What Nike does well is to interpret what people are doing, what they're interested in, and we've been lucky enough to align ourselves completely with what we perceive" (Katz, 1994: 150). But one should not imagine Nike as a mere reflector of popular culture, as the advertising examples above relate. In fact, Jensen (Advertising Age, 12/16/96) imagines Nike's marketing formula to consist of the integration of the swoosh into the cultural fabric of sports and harnessing of its emotional power. Originally, Knight hated ads and spent much more on promotions. For example in 1976, only $100,000 were allocated for advertising versus $310,000 for promotion (Strasser & Becklund, 1994: 239). Knight and the other Nike executives knew well "the importance of owning athlete-endorsed apparel...to youth for the sense of cultural power and belonging it imparted" (Wilson & Sparks, 1996: 415). And who can deny the success of such long-term promotional efforts as the Nike Air Jordan campaign
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There have been many attempts to relate and integrate the social into the economic and vice versa. The conception and theory of culturallag is well suited to a blending of the social and the economic. Whereas an analysis of the need for institutional adjustment is outside the paradigmatic boundaries of mainstream economic analysis, institutional adjustment is central to the concept and theory of culturallag. In their attempts to integrate the social and the economic in an holistic framework, both Thorstein Veblen as an economist, and William F. Ogburn as a sociologist, utilized the conception of cultural lag in their theories related to the dynamics of culture evolution. Whereas Veblen analysed the processes of economic evolution in the framework of culture evolution, Ogburn analysed social evolution in the context of culture evolution (Ogburn, 1966, p. 377).
Consequently, cultural lag does not pertain simply to conception alone, but relates to theory and explanation as well, "I think it better to say that since it is a concept of a relationship, it is a theory. It is therefore more than merely a new term in the language" (Ogburn, 1957, pp. 169-70). As concept and theory, cultural lag helps to identify, analyse and explain social problems as well as to predict and anticipate future problems. More than that, it can also be policy-oriented and direct us to possible solutions. It is noted in the literature that the cultural lag concept and theory has provided one of the most important tools of socioeconomic analysis:
The culturallag approach has been one of the master concepts of modern social analysis ... The concept of culture lag, which Veblen used to analyse social processes, has been widely used by American sociologists to account for both social change and social problems (Davis, 1968, pp. 304-5).
Culturallag is discussed in most current sociology textbooks as an important aspect of social change.Cultural lag is often critiqued, however, as being too general as to conception. "Once a theory includes such concepts as 'lags' ... it becomes so labile and so indistinct that it can be reconciled with virtually any configuration of data" (Merton, 1951, p. 238). None the less, the concept has weathered the storm. The significance, staying power, and merits of the concept are obvious, in that "cultural lag" still appears in most dictionaries and textbooks[1].
Relative to its importance, there is little current discussion pointedly directed to a specific statement ofcultural lag theory and its relevance to current problem identification and resolution. Our aim is to review the pros and cons of the concept and theory of culturallag, with a view to integration and analysis of the pertinent issues raised by its supporters as well as critics. In this way, we hope to clarify and update the concept and theory of cultural lag.
This paper will be divided into three parts: The first part will deal with a clarification of the cultural lagconcept and theory. The second part will address the issue of empirical verification. The third part will discuss the relevance of the concept and theory of culturallag to socioeconomic policy.
A clarification of cultural lag: concept and theory
One definition of cultural lag offered by Ogburn is:
A culturallag occurs when one of two parts of culture which are correlated, changes before or in greater degree than the other part does, thereby causing less adjustment between the two parts than existed previously (Ogburn, 1957a, p. 167).
The idea of cultural lag has evolved over time. It was apparent in the works of both Karl Marx and Thorstein Veblen. The Veblenian dichotomy juxtaposed the dynamics of industrial technology, as material culture, to the statics and lag inherent in the ceremonial and the pecuniary, embedded in non-material culture. According to Ogburn, "I have been accused of taking the theory from Thorstein Veblen", which Ogburn denied, "... because I had never read him on this point" (Ogburn 1957a, p. 168). Ogburn admitted that he had read Marx on this subject and that this was "... a base from which the theory of cultural lagwas developed, but certainly neither the materialistic interpretation of history nor economic determinism is the same as cultural lag" (Ogburn, 1957a, p. 168).
It would seem that while the idea of cultural lag was implied by others, the explicit formulation of the concept and development of the theory awaited Ogburn. Cultural lag is possible "to the extent that culture is like a machine with parts that fit" (Ogburn, 1957a, p. 171). In this sense, Ogburn was influenced by functionalism because he emphasized the interrelatedness of social institutions. But the concept ofcultural lag also differs from functionalism because it has to do with the dynamics of structural change and disorganization. Functionalists, by comparison, deal with the statics of equilibration within a given structure[2].
Ogburn first used the term "cultural lag" when he was a professor of economics and sociology at Reed College in 1914. He developed his theory of cultural lag in 1915, but did not publish it until 1922. A primary concern of Ogburn was empirical verification. In one of his earlier studies, he related the adjustment of legislative laws to industrial accidents, which revealed his positivistic inclinations, in that each of the steps in his analysis required "... careful assessment of evidence and is not something to be judged ... in an offhand manner" (Duncan, 1964, p. xvi).
Prior to the industrial period, tools were simple and the work relationship was of a personal nature. Under these conditions, if a worker had an accident, there was something called the common law of negligence under which the employee could be compensated. With the coming of the machine age, the rise of the factory system, and the resulting increase in the number of accidents, the common law of negligence would no longer suffice. Hence, there was a period of maladjustment or lag until such time as the workmen's compensation laws came into effect (Ogburn, 1966, pp. 213-16). A basic statement of Ogburn'scultural lag thesis is:
... that the various parts of modern culture are not changing at the same rate, some parts are changing much more rapidly than others; and that since there is a correlation and interdependence of parts, a rapid change in one part of our culture requires readjustments through other changes in the various correlated parts of culture ... Where one part of culture changes first, through some discovery or invention, and occasions changes in some part of culture dependent upon it, there frequently is a delay in the changes occasioned in the dependent part of culture. The extent of this lag will vary according to the nature of thecultural material, but may exist for a considerable number of years, during which time there may be said to be a maladjustment (Ogburn, 1966, p. 200).
As with many others, given the complexity of culture, Ogburn recognized the difficulties of definition. One definition, though, that he gave in his book, Social Change, revealed his background as a social behaviourist. He defined culture as "... the accumulated products of human society, and includes the use of material objects as well as social institutions and social ways of doing things" (1966, p. 58). In general terms, Ogburn conceptualized culture as our "social heritage", the "superorganic" which he got from Herbert Spencer's evolutionary theory, and "civilization" (Ogburn 1966, pp. 4-5). Ogburn, however, recognized the unilinear fallacy and rejected the inevitable-stages part of Spencer's theory as being characteristic of any specific culture.
Of central importance, Ogburn divided culture into the material and nonmaterial. His aim was to emphasize the material part of culture that he felt was not particularly emphasized in Edward Tylor's earlier definition as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (Ogburn, 1966, p. 4). Non-material culture was broken down into adaptive and non-adaptive parts.
An example of this would be the family, which is a part of non-material culture. When the factory system provided work away from home, the family had to adapt and adjust to these changed material conditions. At the same time, some of its functions remained constant, and were non-adaptive, such as procreation. Culture evolves and accumulates as a result of invention, discovery and diffusion. It accumulates selectively bemuse of the persistence of culturalforms (culturalinertia) and the addition of new forms.
This selective process leads to diversification and heterogeneity, which in turn leads to specialization. This occurs because a particular group does not become acquainted with the whole of culture, but only that part in which it specializes. As material culture …
2 answers
Another answer from our community:
Basically the spiritual lesson would be to not let ones anger take over, as it can lead to dire consequences both for the victim and for the perpetrator. It also shows how one sin can lead to another. Cain acted wrongly and envied Abel's righteousness, which led him further and further in the wrong direction. What is worse, he failed to heed a dire warning.
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MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
§ 1. The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words. It follows from this that morphology as part of grammatical theory faces the two segmental units: the morpheme and the word. But, as we have already pointed out, the morpheme is not identified otherwise than part of the word; the functions of the morpheme are effected only as the corresponding constituent functions of the word as a whole.
For instance, the form of the verbal past tense is built up by means of the dental grammatical suffix: trained [-d]; published [-t]; meditated [-id].
However, the past tense as a definite type of grammatical meaning is expressed not by the dental morpheme in isolation, but by the verb (i.e. word) taken in the corresponding form (realised by its morphemic composition); the dental suffix is immediately related to the stem of the verb and together with the stem constitutes the temporal correlation in the paradigmatic system of verbal categories
Thus, in studying the morpheme we actual study the word in the necessary details or us composition and functions.
§ 2. It is very difficult to give a rigorous and at the same time universal definition to the word, i.e. such a definition as would unambiguously apply to all the different word-units of the lexicon. This difficulty is explained by the fact that the word is an extremely complex and many-sided phenomenon. Within the framework of different linguistic trends and theories the word is defined as the minimal potential sentence, the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of the sentence, the articulate sound-symbol, the grammatically arranged combination of sound with meaning, the meaningfully integral and immediately identifiable lingual unit, the uninterrupted string of morphemes, etc., etc. None of these definitions, which can be divided into formal, functional, and mixed, has the power to precisely cover all the lexical segments of language without a residue remaining outside the field of definition.
The said difficulties compel some linguists to refrain from accepting the word as the basic element of language. In particular, American scholars - representatives of Descriptive Linguistics founded by L. Bloomfield - recognised not the word and the sentence, but the phoneme and the morpheme as the basic categories of linguistic description, because these units are the easiest to be isolated in the continual text due to their "physically" minimal, elementary segmental character: the phoneme being the minimal formal segment of language, the morpheme, the minimal meaningful segment. Accordingly, only two segmental levels were originally identified in language by Descriptive scholars: the phonemic level and the morphemic level; later on a third one was added to these - the level of "constructions", i.e. the level of morphemic combinations.
In fact, if we take such notional words as, say, water, pass, yellow and the like, as well as their simple derivatives, e.g. watery, passer, yellowness, we shall easily see their definite nominative function and unambiguous segmental delimitation, making them beyond all doubt into "separate words of language". But if we compare with the given one-stem words the corresponding composite formations, such as waterman, password, yellowback, we shall immediately note that the identification of the latter as separate words is much complicated by the fact that they themselves are decomposable into separate words. One could point out that the peculiar property distinguishing composite words from phrases is their linear indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility tor them to be divided by a third word. But this would-be rigorous criterion is quite irrelevant for analytical wordforms, e.g.: has met - has never met; is coming -is not by any means or under any circumstances coming.
As for the criterion according to which the word is identified as a minimal sign capable of functioning alone (the word understood as the "smallest free form", or interpreted as the "potential minimal sentence"), it is irrelevant for the bulk of functional words which cannot be used "independently" even in elliptical responses (to say nothing of the fact that the very notion of ellipsis is essentially the opposite of self-dependence).
In spite of the shown difficulties, however, there remains the unquestionable fact that each speaker has at his disposal a ready stock of naming units (more precisely, units standing to one another in nominative correlation) by which he can build up an infinite number of utterances reflecting the ever changing situations of reality.
This circumstance urges us to seek the identification of the word as a lingual unit-type on other lines than the "strictly operational definition". In fact, we do find the clarification of the problem in taking into consideration the difference between the two sets of lingual phenomena: on the one hand, "polar" phenomena; on the other hand, "intermediary" phenomena.
Within a complex system of interrelated elements, polar phenomena are the most clearly identifiable, they stand to one another in an utterly unambiguous opposition. Intermediary phenomena are located in the system in between the polar phenomena, making up a gradation of transitions or the so-called "continuum". By some of their properties intermediary phenomena are similar or near to one of the corresponding poles, while by other properties they are similar to the other, opposing pole. The analysis of the intermediary phenomena from the point of view of their relation to the polar phenomena reveal their own status in the system. At the same time this kind of analysis helps evaluate the definitions of the polar phenomena between which a continuum is established.
In this connection, the notional one-stem word and the morpheme should be described as the opposing polar phenomena among the meaningful segments of language; it is these elements that can be defined by their formal and functional features most precisely and unambiguously. As for functional words, they occupy intermediary positions between these poles, and their very intermediary status is gradational. In particular, the variability of their status is expressed in the fact that some of them can be used in an isolated response position (for instance, words of affirmation and negation, interrogative words, demonstrative words, etc.), while others cannot (such as prepositions or conjunctions).
The nature of the element of any system is revealed in the character of its function. The function of words is realised in their nominative correlation with one another. On the basis of this correlation a number of functional words are distinguished by the "negative delimitation" (i.e. delimitation as a residue after the identification of the co-positional textual elements),* e.g.-. the/people; to/speak; by/way/of.
The "negative delimitation'' immediately connects these functional words with the directly nominative, notional words in the system. Thus, the correlation in question (which is to be implied by the conventional term "nominative function") unites functional words with notional words, or "half-words" (word-morphemes) with "full words". On the other hand, nominative correlation reduces the morpheme as a type of segmental signeme to the role of an element in the composition of the word.
As we see, if the elementary character (indivisibility) of the morpheme (as a significative unit) is established in the structure of words, the elementary character of the word (as a nominative unit) is realised in the system of lexicon.
Summing up what has been said in this paragraph, we may point out some of the properties of the morpheme and the word which are fundamental from the point of view of their systemic status and therefore require detailed investigations and descriptions.
The morpheme is a meaningful segmental component of the word; the morpheme is formed by phonemes; as a meaningful component of the word it is elementary (i.e. indivisible into smaller segments as regards its significative function).
The word is a nominative unit of language; it is formed by morphemes; it enters the lexicon of language as its elementary component (i.e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function); together with other nominative units the word is used for the formation of the sentence - a unit of information in the communication process.
§ 3. In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conducted in the light of the two basic criteria: positional (the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central ones) and semantic or functional (the correlative contribution of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word). The combination of these two criteria in an integral description has led to the rational classification of morphemes that is widely used both in research linguistic work and in practical lingual tuition.
In accord with the traditional classification, morphemes on the upper level are divided into root-morphemes (roots) and affixal morphemes (affixes). The roots express the concrete, "material" part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word, the specifications being of lexicosemantic and grammatico-semantic character.
The roots of notional words are classical lexical morphemes.
The affixal morphemes include prefixes, suffixes, and in-flexions (in the tradition of the English school grammatical in-flexions are commonly referred to as "suffixes"). Of these, pre-fixes and lexical suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word; inflexions (grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories.
The root, according to the positional content of the term (i.e. the border-area between prefixes and suffixes), is obligatory for any word, while affixes are not obligatory. Therefore one and the same morphemic segment of functional (i.e. non-notional) status, depending on various morphemic environments, can in principle be used now as an affix (mostly, a prefix), now as a root. Cf.:
out - a root-word (preposition, adverb, verbal postposition, adjective, noun, verb);
throughout - a composite word, in which -out serves as one of the roots (the categorial status of the meaning of both morphemes is the same);
outing - a two-morpheme word, in which out is a root, and -ing is a suffix; outlook, outline, outrage, out-talk, etc. - words, in which out- serves as a prefix;
look-out, knock-out, shut-out, time-out, etc. - words (nouns), in which -out serves as a suffix.
The morphemic composition of modern English words has a wide range of varieties; in the lexicon of everyday speech the preferable morphemic types of stems are root-stems (one-root stems or two-root stems) and one-affix stems. With grammatically changeable words, these stems take one grammatical suffix {two "open" grammatical suffixes are used only with some plural nouns in the possessive case, cf.: the children's toys, the oxen's yokes).
Thus, the abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is the following: prefix + root + lexical suffix+grammatical suffix.
The syntagmatic connections of the morphemes within the model form two types of hierarchical structure. The first is characterised by the original prefixal stem (e.g. prefabricated), the second is characterised by the original suffixal stem (e.g. inheritors). If we use the symbols St for stem, R for root, Pr for prefix, L for lexical suffix, Gr for grammatical suffix, and, be-sides, employ three graphical symbols of hierarchical grouping - braces, brackets, and parentheses, then the two morphemic word-structures can be presented as follows:
W1 = {[Pr + (R + L)] +Gr}; W2 = {[(Pr + R) +L] + Gr}
In the morphemic composition of more complicated words these model-types form different combinations.
§ 4. Further insights into the correlation between the formal and functional aspects of morphemes within the composition of the word may be gained in the light of the so-called "alloemic" theory put forward by Descriptive Linguistics and broadly used in the current linguistic research.
In accord with this theory, lingual units are described by means of two types of terms: allo-terms and eme-terms. Eme-terms denote the generalised invariant units of language characterised by a certain functional status: phonemes, morphemes. Allo-terms denote the concrete manifestations, or variants of the generalised units dependent on the regular co-location with other elements of language: allophones, allomorphs. A set of iso-functional allo-units identified in the text on the basis of their co-occurrence with other lingual units (distribution) is considered as the corresponding eme-unit with its fixed systemic status.
The allo-emic identification of lingual elements is achieved by means of the so-called "distributional analysis". The immediate aim of the distributional analysis is to fix and study the units of language in relation to their textual environments, i.e. the adjoining elements in the text.
The environment of a unit may be either "right" or "left", e.g.: un-pardon-able.
In this word the left environment of the root is the negative prefix un-, the right environment of the root is the qualitative suffix -able. Respectively, the root -pardon- is the right environment for the prefix, and the left environment for the suffix.
The distribution of a unit may be defined as the total of all its environments; in other words, the distribution of a unit is its environment in generalised terms of classes or categories.
In the distributional analysis on the morphemic level, phonemic distribution of morphemes and morphemic distribution of morphemes are discriminated. The study is conducted in two stages.
At the first stage, the analysed text (i.e. the collected lingual materials, or "corpus") is divided into recurrent segments consisting of phonemes. These segments are called "morphs", i.e. morphemic units distributionally uncharacterised, e.g.: the/boat/s/were/gain/ing/speed.
At the second stage, the environmental features of the morphs are established and the corresponding identifications are effected.
Three main types of distribution are discriminated in the distributional analysis, namely, contrastive distribution, non-contrastive distribution, and complementary distribution.
Contrastive and non-contrastive distributions concern identical environments of different morphs. The morphs are said to be in contrastive distribution if their meanings (functions) are different. Such morphs constitute different morphemes. Cf. the suffixes -(e)d and -ing in the verb-forms returned, returning. The morphs are said to be in non-contrastive distribution (or free alternation) if their meaning (function) is the same. Such morphs constitute "free alternants", or "free variants" of the same morpheme. Cf. the suffixes -(e)d and -t in the verb-forms learned, learnt.
As different from the above, complementary distribution concerns different environments of formally different morphs which are united by the same meaning (function). If two or more morphs have the same meaning and the difference in (heir form is explained by different environments, these morphs are said to be in complementary distribution and considered the allomorphs of the same morpheme. Cf. the allomorphs of the plural morpheme /-s/, /-z/, /-iz/ which stand in phonemic complementary distribution; the plural allomorph -en in oxen, children, which stands in morphemic complementary distribution with the other allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
As we see, for analytical purposes the notion of complementary distribution is the most important, because it helps establish the identity of outwardly altogether different elements of language, in particular, its grammatical elements.
§ 5. As a result of the application of distributional analysis to the morphemic level, different types of morphemes have been discriminated which can be called the "distributional morpheme types". It must be stressed that the distributional classification of morphemes cannot abolish or in any way depreciate the traditional morpheme types. Rather, it supplements the traditional classification, showing some essential features of morphemes on the principles of environmental study.
We shall survey the distributional morpheme types arranging them in pairs of immediate correlation.
On the basis of the degree of self-dependence, "free" morphemes and "bound" morphemes are distinguished. Bound morphemes cannot form words by themselves, they are identified only as component segmental parts of words. As different from this, free morphemes can build up words by themselves, i.e. can be used "freely".
For instance, in the word handful the root hand is a free morpheme, while the suffix -ful is a bound morpheme.
There are very few productive bound morphemes in the morphological system of English. Being extremely narrow, the list of them is complicated by the relations of homonymy. These morphemes are the following:
1) the segments -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz]: the plural of nouns, the possessive case of nouns, the third person singular present of verbs;
2) the segments -(e)d [-d, -t, -id]: the past and past participle of verbs;
3) the segments -ing: the gerund and present participle;
4) the segments -er, -est: the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs.
The auxiliary word-morphemes of various standings should be interpreted in this connection as "semi-bound" morphemes, since, being used as separate elements of speech strings, they form categorial unities with their notional stem-words.
On the basis of formal presentation, "overt" morphemes and "covert" morphemes are distinguished. Overt morphemes are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words; the covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. The notion of covert morpheme coincides with the notion of zero morpheme in the oppositional description of grammatical categories (see further).
For instance, the word-form clocks consists of two overt morphemes: one lexical (root) and one grammatical expressing the plural. The outwardly one-morpheme word-form clock, since it expresses the singular, is also considered as consisting of two morphemes, i.e. of the overt root and the co\ert (implicit) grammatical suffix of the singular. The usual symbol for the covert morpheme employed by linguists is the sign of the empty set: 0.
On the basis of segmental relation, "segmental" morphemes and "supra-segmental" morphemes are distinguished. Interpreted as supra-segmental morphemes in distributional terms are intonation contours, accents, pauses.
The said elements of language, as we have stated elsewhere, should beyond dispute be considered signemic units of language, since they are functionally bound. They form the secondary line of speech, accompanying its primary phonemic line (phonemic complexes). On the other hand, from what has been stated about the morpheme proper, it is not difficult to see that the morphemic interpretation of suprasegmental units can hardly stand to reason. Indeed, these units are functionally connected not with morphemes, but with larger elements of language: words, word-groups, sentences, supra-sentential constructions.
On the basis of grammatical alternation, "additive" morphemes and "replacive" morphemes are distinguished. Interpreted as additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes, since, as a rule, they are opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alternation. Cf. look+ed; small+er, etc. In distinction to these, the root phonemes of grammatical inter-change are considered as replacive morphemes, since they re-place one another in the paradigmatic forms. Cf. dr-i-ve - dr-o-ve - dr-i-ven; m-a-n - m-e-n; etc.
It should be remembered that the phonemic interchange is utterly unproductive in English as in all the Indo-European languages. If it were productive, it might rationally be interpreted as a sort of replacive "infixation" (correlated with "exfixation" of the additive type). As it stands, however, this type of gram-matical means can be understood as a kind of suppletivity (i.e. partial suppletivity).
On the basis of linear characteristic, "continuous" (or "linear") morphemes and "discontinuous" morphemes are distinguished.
By the discontinuous morpheme, opposed to the common, i.e. uninterruptedly expressed, continuous morpheme, a two-element grammatical unit is meant which is identified in the analytical grammatical form comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix. These two elements, as it were, embed the notional stem; hence, they are symbolically represented as follows:
be ... ing - for the continuous verb forms (e.g. is going); have ... en - for the perfect verb forms (e.g. has gone); be ... en - for the passive verb forms (e.g. is taken)
It is easy to see that the notion of morpheme applied to the analytical form of the word violates the principle of the identification of morpheme as an elementary meaningful segment: the analytical "framing" consists of two meaningful segments, i.e. of two different morphemes. On the other hand, the general notion "discontinuous constituent", "discontinuous unit" is quite rational and can be helpfully used in linguistic description in its proper place.
1 answer
In medieval Europe it was generally accepted that the Earth lay at the centre of a finite universe and that the sun, planets and stars orbited around it. The framework in which this astronomy was set was established by Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) in the fourth century BC while in the second century AD Ptolemy (c. 100 - 170 AD) devised a detailed yet different geocentric astronomical system (Chalmers, 1976).
During the early part of the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) developed the first heliocentric theory of the universe (Blackburn, 1994) which he presented in 'De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri Sex' (Six Books on the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs). The Copernican astronomy involved a moving Earth, which challenged the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic systems but by the time the Copernican view had been substantiated, the Aristotelian world-view had been replaced by the Newtonian theories of inertia, gravitation and motion (Chalmers, 1976).
The purpose of this paper is to examine how the theories of Copernicus contributed to the emergence of a scientific world-view, a view that encompassed a paradigmatic shift in world-view orientation from the medieval explanations of nature. Before the impact of the work of Copernicus can be fully appreciated however, it is necessary to have an understanding of the historical and social conditions that prevailed at that time.
The medieval schema of the universe was geocentric. That is, the Earth remained stationary at the centre of the universe while the sun, the planets and all of the stars revolved around it. However, geocentricism had been under attack. Around 1375 The Occamists, particularly in Paris had been busy with a critical philosophy and forward-looking scientific investigations. Despite retaining some of the teleological elements of Aristotelian physics, Buridan (c. 1295 - 1358) had developed a concept of inertia and of gravity as uniformly accelerated motion. Nicholas of Oresme invented the idea of analytic geometry, discovered the formula for uniformly accelerated motion and argued for the rotation of the Earth (Blake, Ducasse & Madden, 1960).
Furthermore, Nicholas of Cusa (1401 - 1464) was associated with the doctrine of the 'concordance of contraries', an attack on the Aristotelian law of non-contradiction (Blackburn, 1994) and had been willing to entertain the idea that the Earth might be in motion. In fact it has been suggested that Copernicus owed to Cusa his view that a sphere set in empty space would begin to turn without needing anything to move it (Butterfield, 1957). Despite these pockets of revolutionary thinking, medieval philosophy remained locked in pantheistic mysticism (Norris-Clark, 1994). Philosophy of the time was subordinate to Christian theology and limited by subservience to dogma. The reverence and respect displayed to authorities of philosophy and theology characterised this thought as Scholasticism. Scholastics sought not to learn new facts, but to integrate the knowledge already acquired separately by Greek reasoning and Christian revelation. Furthermore, they believed in harmony between faith and reason (Copleston, 1992). Because the scholastics believed that revelation was the direct teaching of God, it possessed for them a higher degree of truth and certitude than did natural reason. Throughout the scholastic period, philosophy was called the servant of theology, not only because the truth of philosophy was subordinated to that of theology, but also because the theologian used philosophy to understand and explain the revelation. This concern is one of the most characteristic differences between Scholasticism and modern thought since the Renaissance (Norris-Clark, 2001).
Scholastics applied the requirements for scientific demonstration as first specified in Aristotle's 'Organon' much more rigorously than previous philosophers had done. These requirements were so strict that Aristotle himself was rarely able to apply them fully beyond the realms of mathematics. It was this trend that finally led to the loss of confidence in natural human reason and philosophy that is characteristic of the early Renaissance and of the first Protestant religious reformers, such as Martin Luther (Norris-Clark, 2001).
The Christian church, still reeling from the effects of both the schism of Eastern and Western churches (1054) and of the rival Popes (1378 - 1417) found itself facing an intensified call for reform that eventually erupted in the Protestant Reformation (O'Malley, 2001). Humanism, the revival of classical learning and speculative inquiry, displaced Scholasticism in Italy during the early Renaissance of the 15th Century and quickly spread to become the principle philosophy of Western Europe. This deprived church leaders of the monopoly on learning that they had previously held (Encarta, 2001).
Martin Luther (1483 - 1546) initiated the Protestant revolution in Germany in 1517 when he published his 95 theses challenging the theory and practice of indulgences. The reform became very popular with the people and Germany became sharply divided along religious and economic lines. The reformation spread throughout Europe and led to the Peasants War (1524 - 1526). Not until 1534 when Paul III became pope did the church meet the challenge of the Protestants. Paul III, like many of his successors, did not hesitate to use both diplomatic and military measures against the Protestants. The Counter Reformation movement sought to revitalise the Roman Catholic Church. Subsequently, the Index of Forbidden Books and a new Inquisition were instituted about 1542 (O'Malley, 2001).
Astronomers also were groping for reform at the time of the birth of Copernicus. By the time that Copernicus had finished his preliminary training in astronomy, his teachers had begun to realise that although an intensive study of Ptolemy's 'Almagest' was a necessary pre-requisite to further study, to know only Ptolemy was not going to be sufficient to rejuvenate astronomy (Boas, 1962). Indeed, some astronomers held that the Ptolemaic system was so cumbersome and inaccurate that it could not be true of nature. Copernicus himself eventually wrote in the preface to 'De Revolutionibus' that the astronomical tradition he had inherited had created only a monster (Kuhn, 1962). Further to this Kuhn (1962, p. 69) stated,
"By the early sixteenth century an increasing number of Europe's best astronomers were recognising that the astronomical paradigm was failing in application to its own traditional problems. That recognition was prerequisite to Copernicus' rejection of the Ptolemaic paradigm and his search for a new one."
Copernicus however, did not seem to have a revolutionary attitude and upon rejection of the Ptolemaic system he examined again the earlier Greek astronomy. The humanist principle that all knowledge must lie with the ancients still appeared viable. Copernicus attempted nothing that others had not tried before because many astronomers had used the ancients to refute Ptolemy, however Copernicus alone chose the Pythagorean system which was to have profound revolutionary implications (Boas, 1962).
The historical evidence presented thus far suggests that Western Europe was in a state of several crises when Copernicus entered into the controversy and was ripe for a revolution of one type or another. However, Copernicus kept his work in abeyance for over thirty years and without the encouragement of George Rheticus (1514 - 1576) it is debatable whether his works would have been published at all, let alone before his death. At this point it is appropriate to note that Copernicus was a canon of the Roman Catholic Church and had been called upon by Pope Leo X to reform the calendar. The church was anxious that religious festivals be accorded their proper places in time. George Rheticus was a Protestant who was responsible for the publication of Copernicus's 'Narratio Primer' in 1540 though he handed over his position in the publication of 'De Revolutionibus' to a Lutheran pastor named Andreas Osiander (Boas, 1962). It is ironic that the Catholic Church was involved in the instigation of a reform that would eventually lead to erosion of their power over humanity. It is doubly so that it was done with the first hand assistance of two Protestants.
Traditionally, Copernicus saw his finished work only on his deathbed in 1543 and much controversy has raged over his disinclination to publish in the years between 1512 and 1539. One possible reason is that he may have been afraid of official censure. This fear was not unfounded, as publication of 'De Revolutionibus' was antecedent to much comment and criticism. Central to the Copernican system lay the point which required the most reasoned argument and one which caused Copernicus to fear ridicule from his peers; the attribution of motion to the Earth. To assume in the sixteenth century that the Earth moved required a straining of well-assured fact that could amount to the absurdity provoked by the contrary argument today. Although his book was well received by the church and used to further calendar reform little attention was given at first to its heart, the new theory. (Boas, 1962).
As mentioned previously in this paper it is inappropriate to suggest that the publication of Copernicus's great work shook any foundation of European thought immediately. A generation after his death the period of crucial transition commenced and the controversy over the correctness of the Ptolemaic or the Copernican tenet became intense. Almost one hundred and fifty years would pass before a theory of the universe that would permit explanation of the movement of the Earth and other planets was presented. This explanation, in turn, provided a framework for further scientific development. The influence of Copernicus was indeed important but it resulted not so much from his system of the skies but more from the stimulus that he gave to men who in reality were producing something very different (Butterfield, 1957).
Kuhn (1962, p. 116) discusses paradigm-induced changes in scientific perceptions during the first half century after Copernicus's new paradigm was proposed. He states:
"The very ease and rapidity with which astronomers saw new things when looking at old objects with old instruments may make us wish to say that, after Copernicus, astronomers lived in a different world. In any case, their research responded as though that were the case." (Kuhn 1962, p. 117).
In Kuhn's 'The Copernican Revolution' Copernicus is presented as a highly proficient mathematical astronomer whose very narrow mindedness outside of his chosen domain blinded him to the destructive consequences that his technical reform of astronomy entailed for the entire traditional world-view (Cohen, 1994). Kuhn's point is important, for the heliocentric theories of Copernicus replaced the geocentric view of the cosmos that further threatened the authority of the church (Norris-Clark, 1994). No longer was humanity at the centre of the universe, about which all else revolved, but rather humanity was but one small part of a much larger system in constant movement. With the importance of humanity being decentred, people began to question more than that which faith held in high regard. This resulted in original and creative thought beginning to develop outside of the revered institutions of education (Copleston, 1994), and what emerged were fresh original minds, aching to be freed from the shackles of traditional thought. The geographical discoveries, the opening up of fresh sources of wealth and the questioning of the church, heralded a new era.
In spite of this, most Renaissance scholars felt confident in tracing human history back in a continuous pedigree to Adam, the first human allowing man to retain his divinely fixed place in time and space. Finally, owing to a succession of geniuses, Copernican astronomy assimilated in the seventeenth century. This assimilation resulted in the displacement of the Earth, and man upon it. Rather than being central to the universe, the Earth and consequently mankind became insignificant elements in an infinite universe (Porter, 1990).
Grant (1971) deliberates as to why the 14th century cosmological speculations failed to bring about a Scientific Revolution in the way that Copernicus's astronomical reform was able to do. According to Cohen (1994, p. 267) Grant states,
"Saving the phenomena became the predominant attitude. The thing to do was to think up clever imaginations of how things might be rather than embark upon a relentless investigation of reality."
Grant further argues that the physical realists of the 13th century failed to produce early modern science because of their lack of confidence of the human mind to penetrate nature. Copernicus succeeded because his work made possible for the first time
"a potent union of new ideas that would challenge the traditional physics and cosmology….with the conviction, even if naive, that knowledge of physical reality was fully attainable." (Cohen, 1994, p. 267).
Apart from a few eminent mathematicians like Rheticus and intellectual radicals like Bruno, nobody was bold enough to champion the work of Copernicus. It was the genius of Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) who seized upon it in the late 1580's (Burtt, 1952). However, the person who contributed most significantly to the defence of the Copernican system was Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642). He achieved this in two ways; first, he used the telescope to observe the heavens and transformed pure Copernican theory to theory substantiated through observational data. Second, he devised the beginnings of new mechanics and laid some foundations for Newtonian mechanics that would replace Aristotle's. In doing so, the mechanical arguments against Copernicus were diffused (Chalmers, 1976).
The theory that Giordano Bruno (1548 - 1600) developed from the Copernican system was that the universe forms a system of countless worlds, each of which moves around its own sun. This governs each world that leads its own proper life, emerging from a chaotic condition to a clear and definite formation and again yields to the destiny of dissolution. From the significance of the Copernican theory the 'unlimitedness' of space and time gained a clearer form and ultimately the proven hypothesis of the motion of the Earth about the Sun could furnish a rational basis for the completely new view of man's position in the universe. The anthropocentric idea which had ruled the Middle Ages became incoherent and man, as well as the Earth, ceased to be regarded as the centre of the universe and centre of the world (Windleband, 1958). Kuhn (1957, p. 264) recognises this by stating:
"The conception of a planetary Earth was the first successful break with a constitutive element of the ancient world view. Though intended solely as an astronomical reform, it had destructive consequences which could be resolved only within a new fabric of thought. Copernicus himself did not supply that fabric; his own conception of the universe was closer to Aristotle's than to Newton's. But the new problems and suggestions that derived from his innovation are the most prominent landmarks in the development of the new universe which that innovation had itself called forth."
It is not within the scope of this paper to fully examine the far reaching implications upon science and indeed mankind that have resulted from the work of Copernicus. Through the evidence presented thus far it is apparent that the mathematical reform of astronomy initiated by him was a significant intellectual event. Subsequently it set in motion a preparatory movement in astronomical and physical thought which gradually expanded until it erupted in what is now referred to as the Scientific Revolution (Cohen, 1994). His planetary theories profoundly effected man's relation to God and the universe and further, were catalytic to the transition from a medieval to a modern Western society. The Copernican theory created tremendous controversies in religion, philosophy and social theory which have set the tenor of the modern mind (Kuhn, 1957).
In conclusion, the work of Copernicus not only transformed mankind's conception of the universe but it has been markedly influential in the evolution of science and rational thought as we know it today.
1 answer
Before addressing some remarks on the poem mentioned in the title of this essay, I would
like to stress that T. S. Eliot's life and work provide us with a compelling doubt about his status
quo in the western literary history once he is regarded as a traditionalist, id est, anglo-catholic in
religion, monarchist in politics and classicist in literature and art, but his formation and work
point towards, among other directions, to some multicultural paths.
In spite of being born in America and made England his home, Eliot's formation exhibits
a solid comprehension of the eastern philosophy and languages, and this fact allowed him to
write on issues related to the imperial adventures in India, Africa and elsewhere with a subtle
criticism.
In fact, tradition and rupture run side by side in Eliot's work and thought. His legacy is so
complex and dynamic that it set up the basis for the movement of New Criticism as well as it
provided support for determined concepts inserted into the breast of some postmodern theories as
we can find out in Edward Said's Culture and Imperialism, a text which evokes Eliot's
postulations in order to criticize the American foreign affairs, as it informs below:
Even if we were to allow, as many have,
that the United States foreign policy is
principally altruistic and dedicated to such
unimpeachable goals as freedom and
democracy, there is considerable room for
skepticism. The relevance of T. S. Eliot's
remarks in "Tradition and The Individual
Talent" about the historical sense are
demonstrably important.
In his paradigmatic book Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, T. S. Eliot argues that
the regional culture, which he nominates as satellite culture, has two remarkable reasons to avoid
being absorbed by the prevailing culture of a nation. The first is the proper instinct of survival
which generates in part of the people of the peripheral area a feeling of inferiority or failure. The
second reason for the maintenance of the peripheral cultural dwells in the fact that an advance of
that condition would produce a rupture, a cut that leads to the split of the nation and this is only
valid in the case of secession.
On the other hand, part of the same population can go towards the opposite direction if
those individuals believe that the absorption by the stronger culture can provide them with greater
power and prestige. In this case the status quo of those members will be considered affiliated to
the colonizer mentality, what presupposes a reactionary position which does not contribute to the
process of cultural identity of a region or a nation.
Due to these considerations, we can take into account that Eliot's postulations fit the
process of colonization of a country but not the process of imperial colonization once it is known
the desire of the majority of the people of the colonized lands to break their ties with the
metropolis and to build their own history and cultural identity. I believe this is exact the
predominant feeling in the hearts and minds of those people from Africa and Asia that were
colonized by the British.
It is also important to underscore that the English colonizers used to take people from one
colony and displace them into another, in an operation which set colonies against colonies and
protected the English from the direct involvement with the natives. This kind of process usually
ends in abrogation whose outcomes just favored the colonizer.
Thus, it is based on the belief that T. S. Eliot's work and thought anticipate some points
which would be current in the postmodern era that some of his minor poems can be reread under
a multicultural approach. This is the case of "To the Indians Who Died in Africa", a poem whose
content depicts the enterprise of the English Empire in the colonized lands of India and Africa.
In the opening lines of the poem, Eliot records that it attends the request of Miss Cornelia
Sorabji for Queen Mary's Book for India (Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1943), what means that his
conceptions in the poem stand for a view from the inside of the empire, an English or Western
optic.
The first verse points towards many different possible readings, but I will outline two
contrasting views. One addresses to a possible universal wish related to the human beings and
consists in being brought up and live in his/her own birthplace. On the other hand, such a verse
allows an interpretation that a man's destination is not the migration, and avoiding this
movement, the foreigners would not knock at the first world societies' doors.
The ambiguity of the verse is here a profit if we take into account that whether "a man's
destination is his own village", then, we can figure out that Eliot was saying to his fellow
Englishmen: it is time to bring back "our boys" from India, Africa, etc. I do not have any
evidence to support my arguments on Eliot's thought except the opening for inference provided
by the text itself as I emphasized in the former paragraph.
The second verse must be divided for an accurate analysis once the first part of it presents
dignity and honor of being the master of his own fire, which implies that it was acquired through
independent work, and not as a concession purveyed by the colonizer or anyone else, whilst the
second part of the verse is very depreciative for the woman's condition.
It is known that paradox is a figure of speech which is the mark of this verse considering
that its beginning confers decorum and nobility but it could have formatted a more just
postulation for the second part of the verse if it had inserted woman at man's side in work and did
the same directing man at woman's side in the kitchen.
The first two verses clearly show that they were made up as a reflection on the issues
concerning the British domination abroad, especially in India and in Africa. They express what
should be, and this idea goes deeper in the following verse: "To sit in front of his own door at
sunset", in which a time for contemplation is demanded, and the sunset's presence points out the
possibility of communion with nature. The only way to fulfill this wish consists in the
preservation of the environment, and it is necessary a strong opposition on the industrial and
large scale trade that devastate the natural resources.
The end of this stanza addresses to family, tradition, and memory, all of them fitting
Eliot's ideology. Moreover, a multicultural view is of paramount importance for postmodernism,
and consequently, these verses exhibit the neighbors sharing the same space under the security
guaranteed by the progeny and the feeling of being together in a harmonious process of alterity.
It is remarkable to emphasize that the last verse: "grandson playing in the dust together" is
read now with a sense of nostalgia once the children of postmodern era do not play in the dust but
before the computer's screen in the privileged centers while the children of the devastated areas
of the peripheral nations, especially in Africa and in the Middle-East, roam under debris of their
destructed cities and countries.
Another important point to stress on those final verses of the first stanza is their concern
with space. It is supposed that the "dust" in which "his grandson" and "his neighbors' grandson"
are playing belong to the natives and it is a fruit harvested from a negation, id est, the denying of
displacement, the refusal to migrate, and whose primary cause is the individual identity that is
blended with the space, and in the case of the Indians and the Africans, their identity turns into a
post-colonial one, once it is only a wondering in the poem and can be only put into practice after
the departure of the empire.
All these conjectures came to light from a poem written by a poet whose profile is
regarded as conservative, but I will defend the bard arguing that Eliot's ideas are close to those of
the American literary movement of the 1930s entitled New Criticism which was born from an
intention of establishing a new pattern in the American literary theory and criticism, and it is
known that the New Critics aimed at forging something different from those eurocentric
conceptions in the making of poetry and poetical criticism that were vogue until the emergence of
the Southern School.
In spite of being relegated, in the Western Civilization, to a peripheral position, social
history of the non-europeans is the destination of the first verse of the second stanza expressed in
"... he has many memories...". In reality, those memories have their origin in the process of
colonization when their culture, identity, security and hopes were all confiscated. The following
verses denounce that the memories, which are resulted from the scar, are shared by the whole
community, and the fact that the conversation carries on independently of the weather not only
ratify the scar but exhibits its speech with all emotional charges in the minds of those who lived
under imperial rule.
The whole second stanza turns around conversation and memory, two psychological
instances which tie together the argument, the experiences, and the ingredients of history which
are stored in the individual as well as in the collective minds of the colonized people. Then, the
records on oppression, domination, subjugation contribute to shape the resistance of the local
culture before the imperial agency, and the passage of the seasons metaphorizes the passing time
and the transmission of the cultures from generation through generation.
The stanza closes with the presence of "foreign men" in "foreign place", and the emphasis
Eliot gave to the word "foreign" displays the empire in action. This policy consists in displace the
human beings and turn them into invaders of the foreign lands. This process forced different
peoples, who spoke completely different languages, to face and deal with the other colonized and
their constraint meetings ended, generally, in conflict, whose result favored only the colonizer.
"A man's destination is not his destiny" opens the third stanza pointing towards the
Eliotian point of view that man's destiny is his reunion with God, and for those who take this
mentality for granted that verse states that man is not the master of his own future, of his own
history. On the other hand, the mark of the ambiguity, which characterizes the poem, allows a
reading based on the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized.
A man's destination in a colonial society is designed according to the imperial rule that, in
general, forces the local citizen to search for shelter in one out of two possible ways, in other
words, or he/she goes to the colonizer's side and becomes affiliated or he/she digs trenches for
resistance, and I used the noun trench in the plural form so that the cultural resistance can be read
as an amalgam of manifestations that includes politics, religion, science, music, thought,
literature and the arts, added to those daily cultural habits peculiar to each region of the globe.
Still dealing with that verse, it is suggestive that its echoes are heard in the second and in
the first part of the third verses which introduce the dichotomy expressed by the condition of
being at home or into the exile. Here, it is clear that Eliot had in mind just the process of
immigration based on the experience caught from the movement of the colonized, who were not
yet writing back, but being displaced from India, Pakistan, Africa and other parts of the former
British empire.
But Eliot did not consider, consciously, the process of internal colonization, in spite of his
verses permitting us to address to such a question. The internal colonization occurs when a part of
the nation overcomes the others in economical and political power and cultural influence, and one
of the consequences is the internal migration which provides a kind of inner exile, a figure of
speech I am coining to express the feeling of nostalgia and homesickness of those who are
compelled to adhere to an internal displacement, a situation which is easily observable in large
countries such as China, Brazil, Russia, Canada, Australia, and the United States, to quote only
the largests, but we know that it comes about everywhere.
One of the main reasons for pulling the trigger of this process is the economy. People
from the peripheral areas inside those countries are forced to migrate to the most developed
centers hunting for job and better way of life and this fact always contributes to the social
disarrangement in both, the place of origin and the place of destiny.
This inner exile is also observable in the behavior of the migrants who are always
making attempts in order to reconstruct the natural landscape of his/her homeland through some
cultural activities which bring memories from home, as we can see in the Brazilian Northeast Fair
in Rio de Janeiro City, and whose opportunity provides the migrants from that region to celebrate
their identity through music, food, costume, and regional literature written in craft book that they
call "cordel literature".
If the place is, as the eliotian poem declares, the location of the two cultures, the local and
the displaced one, thus it should be the place for the otherness, the alterity between the regional
and the cross-culture in movement, and this is what would confer a special status to the place.
But, this meeting has resulted much more in a clash of cultures than in the possibility of turning
the place into a making one with hybridity as its id card.
The poem redeems itself in the following two verses when it points out that "Where a man
dies bravely / At one with his destiny, that soil is his", and addresses to the spiritual reality that
man does not pursue the place, but the opposite. So, man could call his home where his heart and
spirit are, and this feeling rescues the citizen from his/her displacement position and places
him/her in the new soil.
In spite of the conceptions of universal truths have been under attack, it is remarkable to
stress that such a verse deconstructs the idea of nation, and claims, unconsciously, for the
abolishment of the boundaries and frontiers, what can be understood as the absence of the
processes of internal and external colonizations.
The last verse "Let his village remember" fits Eliot's clamor for tradition and for a return
to the first arena, the village. However, the invitation for reminding implies that the narrative on
his deed is part of the history, and it also implies the emergence of the voice and the memory of
the village itself that is inserted in the new cultural order and registered in a new cultural map,
besides being a record which circulates and passes from one generation through another as a
treasure shared by the villagers.
"This was not your land, or ours: but a village in the Midlands, / And one in the Five
Rivers, may have the same graveyard" are altruistic verses that sound senseless in a colonial
situation where the midlands, the five rivers and the graveyards are all under imperial control and
the native is deprived of any right concerning on the management of his own country and its
natural resources.
The same contradiction appears in the following lines once the linear reading of the verses
"Let those who go home tell the same story of you:/Of action with a common purpose, ... what is
the fruit of action" is not possible, taking into account that the story the colonizer is telling on the
colonized people is the one which hierarchizes the people through a division set up according to
the predominant binarism of the Western Culture that categorizes the colonized cultures as
inferior, underdeveloped and, sometimes, barbarous.
The propositions sound a kind of "treasure to share" if the colonized people take for
granted the european values as universal truths and turn them into their own view of the world
otherwise the opposite attempt should be consider as an insurrection that will demand a strong
answer from the imperial power.
Unfortunately, the Indians who were kidnapped and used in some African nations, could
not "sit in front of his own door at sunset", nor see "his grandson, and his grandson's neighbor's
playing in the dust together", once the agency of the colonialism forces the colonized Indians to
face the colonized people from Africa in a conflictuous position in favor of the imperial affairs.
In fact, the scars from the colonial times are still in the memory of those who lived under
imperialistic domination or migrated from that condition to become a voice against the new
forms of colonialism.
Eliot's ambivalence in this poem is analogous to that one of Shakespeare in The Tempest,
a play which received a host of interpretations, analyses, appropriations, and recreations in the
postmodern era by the writers and critics from the former colonies in Africa, Caribs and Asia,
demanding the independence of their countries from the European centers. That process was the
materialization of what the Indian writer Salmon Rushdie called "the empire writes back".
T. S. Eliot, as poet, critic, and man lived under postcolonialism in his native America, but
he provided himself with an expatriate experience before turning to the center of the empire
through the process of naturalization and making himself an interpreter and voice of the English
empire. Nevertheless, Eliot's poetry, as all great poetry in history, points towards many directions
and it is the task of the critic to discover what his art is addressing us in a specific time, and I do
believe in a reading under different approach, the one that brings up to date and aids to shape a
new look to the future through poetry and theory.
Based upon these arguments, it is quite important to conclude that T. S. Eliot's work and
thought expressed, among others, in some of his "minor" poems are not only meaningful to the
modern poetry and social criticism but they are still very important for the art and criticism of the
multicultural era and once approached together with Eliot's great poems and critical theories,
they allow the name of T. S. Eliot to be included among the main poets and critics of the
literature of the English language in all times.
So, in these multicultural days we are living, it is significant to stress that so important as
to deconstruct the great canon of the English Literature, an operation proposed by theoreticians
like Mishra and Hodge, is to put the canonical authors and works under multicultural microscope.
I think that the dichotomy colonial/postcolonial is dissolved in the Eliot's poem approached here
and transformed into a kind of message to the central voices inserted in his most famous poem,
The Waste Land, as a kind of refrain: "HURRY UP PLEASE IT'S TIME".
3 answers
Phonological and Phonetic Representations: The
Case of Neutralization
Allard Jongman
University of Kansas
1. Introduction
The present paper focuses on the phenomenon of phonological neutralization to consider the role of phonological and phonetic representations in the production and perception of speech. Phonological neutralization involves the elimination of a phonemic distinction in a particular phonological context. Neutralization of a word-final voicing contrast is a classic example. Table 1 shows the relevant forms for German:Orthographic form
Gloss
Phonological (underlying) form
Phonetic (surface) form
Rat
advice
/Âat/
[Âat]
Rad
wheel
/Âad/
[Âat]
Table 1. Minimal wordpair with distinct phonological representations but, putatively, identical
phonetic representations.
While Rat and Rad differ in their underlying representation in terms of the voicing of the final consonant, the surface forms are identical, both ending in a voiceless alveolar stop, according to phonological analysis. In the past 20 years, phonetic research has attempted to document the extent to which this neutralization is phonetically complete. If neutralization is indeed phoneticallycomplete, the two surface forms should be phonetically identical. If neutralization is incomplete, the two surface forms
do not only differ but they should differ in predictable ways. That is, the acoustic correlates should be of the same quality as when the distinction is fully maintained.
Most phoneticresearch on neutralization has concentrated on word-final devoicing, particularly in languages such as German, Polish, and Catalan (e.g., Charles-Luce, 1985; 1993; Dinnsen and Charles- Luce, 1984; Fourakis and Iverson, 1984; Jassem and Richter, 1989; Port and Crawford, 1989; Port and O'Dell, 1985; Slowiaczek and Dinnsen, 1985).Some of these studiesreport incomplete neutralization while others document complete neutralization. Factors known to influence neutralization and therefore potentially responsible for these differences across studies include orthography (whether or not the underlying distinction is represented in the spelling, Fourakis and Iverson, 1984), speech style (careful vs. casual, Port and Crawford, 1989), and semantic expectancy (whether or not the context is predictive
of the target form, Charles-Luce, 1993).
2. Experiment 1: Manner neutralization in Korean
Since most research has concerned neutralization of a voicing distinction and results vary across studies, it is not clear a priori what one would expect to find for neutralization of a qualitatively different type. In order to address that issue, Hyunsoon Kim and I explored neutralization of manner of articulation in Korean (see Kim and Jongman, 1996, for a detailedreport). The relevant forms are shown
in (1):
 2003 Allard Jongman
Cascadilla Proceedings Project
(1) /k´t/ "to collect" /k´t + ´/ [k´.d´] (with indicative marker /´/)
/k´t + tSi/ [k´t.tS"i/ (with negative marker /tSi/)
/k´tÓ/ "outside" /k´tÓ + Èl/ [k´.tÓÈl] (with object marker /Èl/)
/k´tÓ + kwa/ [k´t.kwa] (with marker /kwa/ "and")
/k´s/ "outside" /k´s + i/ [k´.si] (with subject marker /i/)
/k´s + kwa/ [k´t.kwa] (with marker /kwa/ "and")
These three forms differ in their underlying representation. However, when followed by a suffix beginning with a consonant, all three forms surface with a plain voiceless [t]. In order to determine whether this neutralization of manner of articulation is phonetically complete, we focused on two parameters, vowel and final consonant duration. In particular, in the case of incomplete neutralization we expected to find a longer vowel duration in forms that underlyinglyend in /s/ as compared to /t, tÓ/. This
is because in Korean, like many other languages, vowels are longer when preceding fricatives relative to stops. In addition, we expected final consonants derived from underlying /tÓ/ to be longer than those derived from /t/.
Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the pattern of results that we obtained:
Underlying stem-final consonantSpeaker
/t/
/tÓ/
/s/
1
81
79
82
2
75
76
73
3
80
84
85
4
58
57
53
Table 2. Mean vowel duration (in ms) for each speaker, for minimal triplet members underlyingly ending in /t/, /tÓ/, and /s/.
Underlying stem-final consonantSpeaker
/t/
/tÓ/
/s/
1
81
79
82
2
75
76
73
3
80
84
85
4
58
57
53
Table 3. Mean consonant duration (in ms) for each speaker, for minimal triplet members underlyingly ending in /t/, /tÓ/, and /s/.
There were no differences in vowel or consonant duration as a function of the manner of articulation
of the underlying consonant. However, before claiming that these results demonstrate that neutralization
of manner in Korean is phonetically complete, it is important to realize that we measured only two acoustic cues. It is thereforepossible that differences due to underlying form would show up in some other parameter that we did not measure. Since the number of acoustic cues that would have to be measured to address this issue is potentially very large, we decided to conduct a perceptionexperiment instead to determine whether we had overlooked any cues that allowed listeners to tell the underlying forms apart.
Korean listeners were presentedwith a surface form (e.g., [k´t] derived from either /k´t/, /k´tÓ/, or
/k´s/) and asked to indicate which word they heard. Overall identification accuracy was at 32%, virtually identical to chance performance. Thus, these forms did not contain any cues that allowed listeners to decide which word they had heard. Taken together, these acoustic and perceptual results suggest that Korean manner neutralization is indeed phonetically complete. In view of some previous reports of incomplete neutralization of voicing, our finding of complete neutralization of manner raises the question whether these different results are due to the fact that neutralization of voicing and manner are qualitatively very different or to differences in the methodology employed. We therefore decided to conduct our own investigation of voicing neutralization.
3. Experiment 2: Voicing neutralization in Dutch
Similar to German, Dutch has a process of word-final voicing. The relevant forms are shown in
Table 4 (plurals are included to illustratethat the underlying consonant does surface):Orthographic form
Gloss
Phonological
(underlying) form
Plural
Phonetic
(surface) form
pond
pound
/pOnd/
/pOnd´n/
[pOnt]
pont
ferry
/pOnt/
/pOnt´n/
[pOnt]
Table 4. Minimal wordpair with distinct phonological representations but, putatively, identical
phonetic representations.
We analyzed minimal pairs produced by 15 speakers (a large corpus for this kind of neutralization study) by measuring vowel duration, consonant closure duration, and burst duration (see Warner, Jongman, Sereno, and Kemps, in press, for details). Results (averaged across words with phonemically short and long vowels) are summarized in Table 5:
Underlying word-final consonantVoiceless
Voiced
Vowel duration
148
152
Burst duration
135
129
Closure duration
78
76
Table 5. Duration (inms) as a function of the underlying voicing ofthe word-final consonant.
Statistical analysis indicated that the differences for vowel and burst duration were significant. While these differences are numerically quite small, their significance is presumably due to the large number of speakersand words employed.
We then explored whether listeners are sensitive to these differences. Instead of including all words produced by all speakers, we selected four speakers differing in the way they had produced the minimal pairs. Table 6 shows if and how each speaker used vowel and burst duration to distinguish the underlyingly voiced and voiceless tokens.Speaker
Vowel duration
Burst duration
A
++
++
B
++
+
C
0
-
D
-
-
Table 6. Extent to which each speaker used vowel duration and/or burst duration to distinguish underlyingly voiced and voiceless tokens. ++ and + indicate a relatively large or small
difference, respectively, in the expected duration , 0 indicates no difference, and - indicates a small difference in the opposite direction (see text).
For example, Speaker A had relatively large differences in theexpected direction for both vowel and burst duration. In other words, this speaker produced a substantially longer vowel and shorter burst for forms ending in an underlyingly voiced consonant. Speaker C did not differentiate forms in terms of vowel duration but produced a longer burst duration for forms ending in an underlyingly voiced consonant. In order to maximize our listeners' chances, the stimuli were blocked by speaker. The results are shown in Table 7:
Speaker
Intended final /t/
Intended final /d/
A
63*
50
B
62*
50
C
54
55
D
57
61*
Table 7. Percent 't' responses as a function of whether the speaker produced a form ending in underlying /t/ or /d/. * indicates a significant difference between the two response rates.
As can be seen from Tables 6 and 7, these results show a very good match between production and perception. Words with final /d/ and /t/ produced by speakers A and B who distinguished the voiceless andvoiced forms in terms of vowel and closure duration were correctlyidentified at significantly better than chance levels. For example, for Speaker A, there were significantly more 't' responses to words underlyingly ending in /t/ (63%) than to words underlyingly ending in /d/ (50%). Identification rates for Speaker C, who did not distinguish the differentunderlying forms in terms of vowel duration and only slightly so - but in the opposite direction - for closure duration were not significantly different. Finally, Speaker D distinguished the different underlying forms by using vowel and closure duration in the opposite direction and, lo and behold, perception exactly mimicked this pattern in that listeners perceived significantly more 't' responses when the speaker produced words ending in /d/!
We also conducted two additional perception experiments that went beyond the kind of perception experiment that is typically done in neutralization studies (as in Kim and Jongman, 1996). Both of these required the creation of duration continua by digitally editing the natural productions. In one experiment, we manipulated the cue that seemed most salient based on our findings so far.A look at Table 7 suggests that vowel duration is the most likely cue to the underlying voicing distinction.We therefore created vowel duration continuafor several words produced by each of the four speakers used previously.For example, an 11-step continuum was created from /wAt/ to /wAd/ with the original production (either
/wAt/ or /wAd/) in the middle and a vowel duration range of 50 ms. Stimuli were blocked by speaker and
continuum and listenerswere asked to respond with the word they thought the stimulus sounded more like. This is a difficult task given that vowel duration varied over only a small range (based on our production data) and the final consonant did not vary at all. Nevertheless, the results revealed that listeners were able to used vowel duration as cue. They gave significantly more 't' responses for short vowel durations as compared tolong vowel durations.
Interestingly, we obtained very similar results in the other perception experiment in which consonant closure duration continua were created. As shown in Table 5, consonant closure duration did notsystematically vary as a function of underlying consonant voicing. One may therefore expect that it does not constitute a reliable perceptual cue. However, for our continua with the original word in the middle and a closure duration range of 100 ms, listeners gave significantly more 't' responses for longer closure durations.
Taken together, the results from these two perception experiments in which acoustic parameters were systematically manipulated indicate not only that listeners can use vowel duration as a cue but they can also use closure duration as a cue even though it does not serve as a cue in natural speech. Apparently, listeners identify the only possible perceptual cue (i.e., the only property that varies within the confines of the experiment) and apply it based on its relevance in a different environment.
A number of years ago, Dan Dinnsen, one of the primary researchers in the area of phonetic and phonological neutralization, published an inventory of possible types of neutralization, taking into account both the production and perception domains. The major features of this taxonomy (Dinnsen,
1985) are reproduced here as Table 8:
Type
Production differences
Perception differences
Comments and examples
A
No
No
Standard view
Not well established
B
Yes
No
Sound change in progress
C
Yes
Yes
Non-neutralizing
German devoicing
D
No
Yes
Impossible
Table 8. Four logically possible types of neutralization when considering both production and perception (after Dinnsen, 1985).
The results of our research on Korean and Dutch indicate the need for some modifications to this table. First, Dinnsen's claim that Type A neutralization, the standard phonological view, is not well- established is challenged by our finding that neutralization of manner of articulation in Korean is complete in terms of both production and perception. Similar findings have also been obtained for the perception and production of Japanese pitch accent (Maniwa and Jongman, submitted).Types B and C are well established and presumably distinguished by the magnitude of the acoustic difference. If the difference is reliable but too small to be perceived, Type B neutralization is the result. Type C occurs when the difference is large enough to be perceived. Type D, is, of course, logically impossible. However, the results from the perception experiment on Dutch closure duration add a twist in that listeners can be made to use a cue that doesnot vary at all in production.
Finally, any discussion of phonological and phonetic representations needs to address the psychological reality of such representations. The next experiment attempted to specifically determine if listeners make use of phonological representations when perceiving speech.
4. Experiment 3: Phonological representation of [voice] in speech perception
This experiment involved the processing of Dutch verb+clitic constructions (for details, see Lahiri, Jongman, and Sereno, 1990; Jongman, Sereno, Raaijmakers, and Lahiri, 1992). In colloquial Dutch, when the clitic 'der' ("her") attaches to a preceding verb ending in an obstruent, the verb+clitic combination leads to an optional voicing alternation on the surface.Relevant forms are shown in Table
9:Verb
Underlying stem
Gloss
First ps. Sg.
Gloss
Verb+clitic
(voiceless)
Verb+clitic
(voiced)
[k{s´n]
/k{s/
'to kiss'
[Ik k{s ha®]
'I kiss her'
[Ik k{st´®]
[Ik k{zd´®]
[kiz´n]
/kiz/
'to choose'
[Ik kis ha®]
'I choose her'
[Ik kist´®]
[Ik kizd´®]
Table 9. Verb stems and voiceless and voiced verb+clitic constructions.
The verb stems for 'to kiss' and 'to choose' end in a voiceless and voiced obstruent, respectively. Crucially, for each underlying verb stem, two clitic forms can surface, one that matches and one that mismatches the underlying stem in terms of voicing.
In order to determine whether the parsing of the cliticized forms and recognition of the verbs was affected by either surface phonetic or underlying phonological representations of the verb stem, a primed auditory lexical decision paradigm was used. As illustrated in (2), listenerswould hear a target (a verb stem or infinitive form, they are identical in Dutch) preceded by a prime that was a verb+clitic construction that either matched or mismatched the target in terms of its underlying voicing representation.
(2) underlying stem-final consonant prime target
[Ik k{st´®]
/s/ [k{s]
[Ik k{zd´®]
[Ik kist´®]
/z/ [kis]
[Ik kizd´®]
Verb stems ending in /p, b/ were used in addition to stems ending in /s, z/, The same listener did not hear both the voiceless and voiced prime of the same verb. Results are shown in Figure 1.
850
800
750
/z/
/b/
700
/s/
/p/
650
600
voiced cluster voiceless cluster
Clitic Form
Figure 1. Reaction times (in ms) to voiced and voiceless clitic forms as a function of their
underlying stem-final consonants (/p, b, s, z/).
These data clearly show an asymmetry in response latencies to the same target verb depending on whether or not the listener heard the surface form that matches the phonological representation of that verb. For verbs underlyingly ending in a voiceless obstruent, responses were faster when preceded by the voiceless clitic form. Conversely, when verbs ended in voiced obstruent, responses were faster when they were preceded by the voiced clitic form. This suggests that it is not the case that both variants of a verbform are stored in the lexicon. Instead, recognition is influenced by the underlying phonological representation of the verb stem.
5. Conclusions
The Korean data suggest that neutralization of manner of articulation is phonetically complete and
as such support the standard view in phonological theory. In contrast, the Dutch data indicate that neutralization of voicing is phoneticallyincomplete. This is in agreement with some previous research
on German, although the Dutch durationaldifferences are much smaller than what has been reported for
German. One possible motivation for incomplete neutralization might be perceptual in nature. After all,
a distinction that is not completely neutralized may be easier to recover. However, that of course depends again on the magnitude or perceptual salience of the distinction and as Dinnsen (1985) already pointed out, cases have been documented in which speakers make systematic distinctions but below the level at which listeners can profit from them. In addition, the Dutch data show the reverse pattern, namely that listeners can use differences that are not reliably produced.
Assuming that both the Korean and Dutch studies have been carefully conducted, we now have solid evidence for complete neutralization in one and incomplete neutralization in the other. Both studies were quite similarin design, and both languages represent the underlying representation in their spelling,
to mention two obvious reasons for the differencesobserved. The questionthen becomes why only some
distinctions are completely neutralized. Possible answers include the following: some distinctions may
be more categorical than others. For example, the distinction between a fricative and a stop can be considered more categorical than that between a voiced and voiceless obstruent. This would account for thefinding of complete neutralization of manner but incomplete neutralization of voicing. Differences could also be due to the fact that underlying distinctions are cued by multiple acoustic parameters. In this view, degree of neutralization is determined by the extent to which each parameter can be successfully neutralized. Differencesmay also be caused by the distinction between lexical and postlexical processes,
or by paradigmatic pressure (see Mascaro, 1987).
Finally, differences may arise from the fact that phonetic implementation rules might refer to more than one representation. That is, the lexicon could have multiple underlying forms. In her insightful discussion of neutralization, Blumstein (1991) points out that if neutralization were always complete, the phonetic evidence would be consistent with the phonological analysis but would be unable to confirm it. Specifically, phonetic evidence could not rule out a lexicon with multiple underlying forms. For example, referring to Table 5, even though the singular-plural alternation is regular and predictable, the word 'pond' could have two underlying forms, /pOnt/ for the singular and /pOnd/ for the plural. However, incomplete phoneticneutralization rules out such a view. The results from the experiment with Dutch cliticized forms also suggest that a single, rather than multiple, forms are stored. In sum, then, rather than calling the concept of linguistic contrast into question, incomplete neutralization in fact supports the standard phonological analysis of neutralization.
References
Blumstein, S.E. (1991).The relation between phonetics and phonology. Phonetica 48,108-119.
Charles-Luce, J. (1985) Word-final devoicing in German: Effects of phonetic and sentential contexts, Journal of
Phonetics, 13, 309-324.
Charles-Luce, J. (1993) The effects of semantic context on voicing neutralization, Phonetica, 50, 28-43.
Charles-Luce, J. & Dinnsen,D. (1987) A reanalysis of Catalan devoicing, Journal of Phonetics, 15, 187-190. Dinnsen, D. (1985) A re-examination of phonological neutralization, Journal of Linguistics, 21, 265-279.
Dinnsen, D. & Charles-Luce, J. (1984) Phonological neutralization, phonetic implementation and individual differences, Journal of Phonetics, 12, 49-60.
Fourakis, M. & Iverson, G. (1984) On the 'incomplete neutralization' of German final obstruents, Phonetica,41,
140-149.
Jassem, W. & Richter, L. (1989) Neutralization of voicingin Polish obstruents, Journal of Phonetics, 17, 317-325. Jongman, A., Sereno, J., Raaijmakers, M., and Lahiri, A. (1992). The phonological representation of [voice] in
speech perception. Language and Speech 35,137-152.
Kim, H., and Jongman, A. (1996). Acoustic and perceptual evidence for complete neutralization of manner of articulation in Korean.Journal of Phonetics 24, 295-312.
Lahiri, A., Jongman, A., and Sereno, J. (1990). The pronominal clitic [d´r] in Dutch: A theoretical and experimental
approach. In G.E. Booij and J. van Marle (eds.), Yearbook of Morphology, Vol. 3(pp.115-127). Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
Mascaro, J. (1987). Underlying voicing recoverability of finally devoiced obstruents in Catalan. Journal of
Phonetics 15,183-186.
Port, R. & Crawford, P. (1989) Incomplete neutralization and pragmatics in German, Journalof Phonetics, 17, 257-
282.
Port, R. & O'Dell, M. (1985) Neutralization of syllable-final voicing in German, Journal of Phonetics,13, 455-471. Slowiaczek, L. & Dinnsen, D. (1985) On the neutralizing status of Polish word-final devoicing, Journal of
Phonetics, 13, 325-341.
Warner,N., Jongman, A., Sereno, J., and Kemps, R. (in press). Incompleteneutralization and other sub-phonemic durational differences in production and perception: evidence from Dutch.Journal of Phonetics.
website: neutralaccent.com
2 answers
The Concept of 'Project': A Proposal for
a Unifying Definition
Andreas Munk-Madsen
Dept. of Computer Science, Aalborg University
amm@cs.aau.dk
Abstract. "Project" is a key concept in IS management. The word is frequently used in
textbooks and standards. Yet we seldom find a precise definition of the concept. This
paper discusses how to define the concept of a project. The proposed definition covers
both heavily formalized projects and informally organized, agile projects. Based on the
proposed definition popular existing definitions are discussed.
Keywords: Project, definition, project management, software development, agile.
1. Introduction
1.1. Motivation
Many authors give us guidelines for how we should manage projects. Yet they often
lack precision as to what they consider a project. When we read a guideline we want
to know which phenomena it applies to. We want to know what the author considers
to be a project and what is not considered a project. It would also be nice to know
whether a guideline applies to a larger class of phenomena than just projects, or
whether it only applies to a subclass of project, e.g. IS projects.
- 2 -
From a scientific point of view a precise definition is useful if we want to
reproduce the reasoning, the experiments, or the observations that lead to the
formulation of the guidelines.
Let us illustrate the problem we want to address with an example. A widespread
model for software engineering, CMMI-SW (Carnegie Mellon Software
Engineering Institute, 2002), makes heavily use of the word "project". The word is
used to denote two of the fundamental process areas, "Project Planning" and
"Project Monitoring and Control". CMMI-SW defines a project in this way:
... a "project" is a ... set of ... resources ... [that] typically operates according to a plan.
The complete definition is more complex, which in itself is a problem. We will deal
with the complete definition later. Here we only focus on a few aspects.
The first problem is the choice of a general concept from which the concept
project is specialized. A set of resources can be almost anything from money on a
bank account to food in a refrigerator. A project has little in common with these sets
of resources. So the general concept is not well chosen. It is too general.
The second problem is the word typically. It signifies that the ensuing feature is
true for most, but not all, projects. Therefore this is not a distinguishing feature. We
cannot use the feature to determine whether a given phenomenon is a project or not.
And given a project, we cannot be sure that it possesses the feature.
The third problem is that the concept of a plan is linked to the definition of a
project. It exempts CMMI-SW from arguing why a project must a have plan, as this
by definition is true in most cases.
This paper will discuss how we can remedy such problems by putting more care
into our definition of project.
1.2. Research Methodology
A definition is a part of a theory; actually a fundamental part. Creating and analyzing
definitions is a theoretical activity. Thus, it is not possible in an empirical way to
"prove" the "correctness" of a definition. Correctness is not an attribute that
applies to a definition.
The qualities of a definition are pragmatic:
· a certain conformity to the intuitive informal use of the concept,
· the simplicity and the internal consistency of the definition,
· and the elegance of how the definition helps us structure and present
existing knowledge.
The reasons for using a particular definition roughly sum up to "presentation
power".
The methodology for creating definitions is not a deductive process where the
definition is reached as a final conclusion. It is essentially an interaction between
restating proposals for definitions and testing them against relevant parts of the
existing body of knowledge. The discussion of other definitions uses a limited form
- 3 -
of textual analysis. Since these definition all claim generality, it is considered a
reasonable approach to focus on the actual text of the definitions.
The simplest way to present a proposed definition is to regard it as a hypothesis:
"This definition has high presentation power". The hypothesis can then be
supported when the definition is used to present central parts of the relevant
knowledge. The proof of the hypothesis basically resides with the reader.
That is the way in which the present paper is structured. Section 2 discusses
definitions in general. Why should we define our concepts and how can we do this?
Section 3 presents two different definitions of project drawn from the field of
organization theory. One definition focuses on the kind of tasks that is solved in a
project, the other definition focuses on the way the work in the project is organized.
Based on the theory of Mintzberg (1983) it is argued that these two definitions are
equivalent.
Section 4 shows how these definitions can be used in presenting our
understanding of software projects. It discusses the features that unite and the
features that divide two popular schools of thought in IS management, the agile and
the heavy methodologies.
Section 5 shows how the insight represented in our definitions can be used when
we discuss other definitions of project found in literature.
2. Definitions
A definition is a statement explaining the meaning of a word (Collins Cobuild,
1987). It supports identification and understanding of a phenomenon. This section
explains the purpose of definitions in science and discusses how we can construct
definitions.
2.1. Why Define?
Must we create definitions? No, in many situations we may do well without precise
definitions. Dahlbom and Mathiassen (1993) explain:
A lot of our knowledge is tacit, unformulated. Our actions are to a great extent based on knowhow,
rather than on explicitly formulated rules and principles.
They make a distinction between Platonic and Aristotelian concepts:
A lot of our knowledge is based on Platonic conceptions, on exemplary instances or
paradigmatic cases, rather than on Aristotelian concepts, explicit rules and definitions.
And they explain where we need definitions:
But if we want to develop our knowledge, to question and change our values, we must confront
them by trying to make them explicit.
Alter (2000) argues for more precise definitions in the field of IS:
- 4 -
…the lack of conscious attention to the meanings of basic terms and points of reference may
be a significant impediment to effective communication and to our ability to make sense out of
research findings and even journalistic anecdotes about what seemed to work or not work in
particular situations.
Explicit definitions are important in science. Definitions improve communication
and understanding. Precise definitions help us to ensure that we talk about the same
phenomena. Precise definitions makes it easier to check that empirical evidence
support theoretical theses. Precise definitions also help avoiding circular reasoning
where what appears as a thesis is only a redundant restatement of basic
assumptions.
Definitions are important prerequisites for the conceptual grounding that is a part
of the multi-grounding of design theories proposed by Goldkuhl (2004).
There is a limit to the clarity we can achieve through definitions. We are using
natural language to describe phenomena only partially understood. Some of these
phenomena belong to the real world and can only be partially formalized. Still, this
does not contradict the underlying assumption that some definitions are better than
others for supporting identification and understanding.
2.2. The Format of Definitions
We normally define a concept by relating it to other concepts that we assume the
reader is familiar with. This can be done is different ways.
We can decompose the concept and explain it as an aggregate of other concepts.
E.g. "A chair consists of a horizontal plate, called the seat, to which is attached one
or more legs…" Usually this kind of definition is hard to understand. It may help
us identify or even build a chair, but it does not tell us why we need a chair, and it
does not place the chair in any context.
If there is a small number of objects in the class denoted by the concept we may
just specify them. E.g. "Scandinavia consists of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden".
This is a precise specification, but it does not say anything about the characteristics
of the concept.
We may give examples of objects or subclasses in the class denoted by the
concept, but that would only be a Platonic definition. It would illustrate the concept
but not give any explicit explanation.
We can associate the concept to other concepts and explain the relations to these
concepts. E.g. "Chairs are often used together with tables…" This will provide
some understanding of the context of the defined phenomenon. However, this kind
of definition may lose sharpness because of the introduction of unnecessary
concepts.
The best format for a definition is the classic Aristotelian: Definitio fit per genus
proximum et differentiam specificam. (Aristotle, 350 B.C.; Smith, 2004). Here we
explain the concept by specifying a relevant superclass and some characteristic that
distinguish the concept from neighboring classes. E.g. "A chair is a piece of
- 5 -
furniture for one person to sit on." The relevant superclass, genus proximum,
classifies the concept and the concept inherits the properties of the superclass. Thus
in our example the entire "theory" of furniture - including context and theses -
now applies to chairs.
The distinguishing characteristic, differentia, should ideally tell us the features
that only the objects in the concept possess. The choice of the dimension of the
differentia is important. In the example with the chair the distinguishing dimension
is the use of the furniture. We could have chosen another dimension, e.g.
construction. This would give us a definition as: "A chair is a piece of furniture with
a horizontal plate approximately 45 cm above the floor." The choice of
distinguishing dimension in our definition depends on the kind of theory we want to
present. Is it a theory of how to use chairs or how to build chairs? Of course we
might want a combined theory of how to build useful chairs. In that case we need
both definitions, and we must discuss whether they are equivalent.
The differentia should be both necessary and sufficient to distinguish the
considered concept. Sufficient means that we will not permit irrelevant phenomena
into the considered class. Insufficiency is fairly simple to demonstrate as it can be
illustrated by an example. The inclusion of more than the necessary features in the
differentia often involves redundancy. This leads to more subtle complications as it
may confuse both argument and presentation. Elimination of redundancy from the
differentia is basically an application of the principle of Occam's Razor.
Genus proximum et differentiam specificam is only a guideline for the format of
a definition. Using the best format for a definition gives no guarantee that genus and
differentia are well chosen. We still need to evaluate proposed definitions in relation
to our other notions of the concept.
3. Projects
Project is a central phenomenon in the field of IS, as systems normally are
developed and implemented in projects. Practically everybody who talks about
system development methodology will also use the word project. However, as we
shall see later, many authors do not give a precise definition of the concept.
In this section we explore two fundamentally different definitions of project and
argue for the equivalence of these two definitions.
3.1. Two Definitions
The word project is derived from Latin where "pro" means "forward" and
"jacere" means "throw". Thus the original meaning of project is something that in
a figurative sense has been thrown forward, a proposal. The meaning has gradually
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been extended to include the process of realizing the proposal and the people who
perform the realization.
As a relevant genus for our definition of project we need a word that denotes
people working together. For this we could use "organization". However, some
people understand organization purely as a legal entity. We want our definition to
include parts of legal entities as well as people from different legal entities working
together. For this reason the genus of project is chosen to be organizational unit.
But colloquially we will use organization as a synonym.
We then need to specify the differentia, what separates a project from other kinds
of organizations. One relevant dimension for the distinguishing characteristic is the
kind of tasks solved by the organization. Inspired by Mintzberg (1983) we can
suggest the following definition:
Definition 1: A project is an organizational unit that solves a unique and complex task.
By stating that the task is unique we exclude most organizations where task
repetition is a prominent feature. This is not the case in IS development. In IS
development the task is always unique, at least to the actual developers. If not so,
they could solve the task once and just press "copy" for the rest.
The feature of uniqueness entails that the task must be delimited both in scope
and time. This delimitation may not be entirely clear in the beginning of the project,
and it may change during the course of the project. However, if we experienced a
permanent stream of changing tasks we would say that this was no longer a single
project.
The task must have some complexity before it belongs in a project. If the task is
simple most people will know how to solve it, and the amount of organizational
overhead normally associated with a project will not be needed.
We should note that both uniqueness and complexity are relative to the project
participants. That somebody on the other side of the earth has great experience in
solving the actual task and considers it simple is irrelevant if our participants are not
aware of this.
Definition 1 looks at a project from the outside. It focuses on an important
situational factor, namely what we use a project for. This raises the questions: What
are the internal characteristics of a project? And which principles apply to managing
a project? We shall address these questions shortly. But first we will consider
another definition.
An important design parameter for an organization is the way in which the people
coordinate their work, the prime coordinating mechanism. Mintzberg (1983) lists
five different coordinating mechanisms:
· direct supervision,
· standardization of work processes,
· standardization of work outputs,
· standardization of worker skills,
· and mutual adjustment.
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All of these coordinating mechanisms are used in all organizations, but in any
organization some mechanism is the most important, and this can be used as a
defining characteristic. Inspired by Mintzberg's concept of the adhocracy, we can
define project the following way:
Definition 2: A project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is
mutual adjustment.
In this definition the differentia is an internal feature. This immediately raises the
questions: What is the use of such an organization? What kind tasks is this type of
organizations suited to solve? The answers to these and the previously raised
questions follow when we argue for the equivalence of definitions 1 and 2.
3.2. The Equivalence of the Definitions
We shall argue for the equivalence of definition 1 and 2 in the sense that they in
practice describe the same phenomena.
Thesis 1: An organizational unit that solves a unique and complex task must use mutual
adjustment as the prime coordinating mechanism.
The reasoning behind this thesis is that the other coordinating mechanisms cannot
do the job. Standardization will be too expensive when we are dealing with a unique
task. Direct supervision scales badly so any medium sized or larger task will
overload the supervisor.
Thesis 2: An organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is mutual
adjustment should only be used to solve tasks that are unique and complex.
The reasoning behind thesis 2 is that, albeit projects can solve other types of tasks,
mutual adjustment compared to other mechanisms is dramatically inefficient for
coordinating repetitive work or non-complex tasks.
The reasoning for thesis 1 and 2 depends on the assertion that Mintzberg's list of
coordination mechanisms is exhaustive. This is an empirical fact that according to
Mintzberg so far holds pretty much true.
Thesis 1 and 2 can be combined to thesis 3. This may be seen as an application
of Mintzberg's Extended Configuration Thesis on the domain of project
organization.
Thesis 3: Definition 1 is equivalent to definition 2.
Thus it becomes a matter of perspective which definition of project we choose. From
a theoretical viewpoint the internal characteristics will perhaps best represent the
essence of a project. From an application perspective the natural choice would be to
start with the problem, definition 1, and then use thesis 3 to state that definition 2 is
the solution.
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4. Agile and Heavy Projects
A problem that has arisen in the last few years is how to explain the agile projects
(Beck et al., 2001). They are definitely phenomena that we should call projects as
they fulfil both definition 1 and 2 above. However, they fit badly into the CMMISW
definition, as one of the core values of the agile manifesto explicitly downgrade
the concept of plan (Beck et al., 2001):
We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:…Responding to change over following a plan
It is a relevant exercise to explain, in a simple way, what agile and heavy projects
have in common and where they differ. Definitions 1 and 2 is one way of explaining
the communality between the two different types of projects. To explain the
difference we must look deeper into the distinguishing property mutual adjustment.
There is a wide spectrum of ways in which mutual adjustment can take place.
This spectrum is reflected in the great variation among different projects. In this
section we first describe the different ways in which a project can be coordinated,
and we relate some of these differences to the dimension spanned by the frequency
with which the mutual adjustment is performed. Secondly we discuss which tasks
agile and heavy methods are suited to solve. Finally we mention two other important
dimensions that could be used to characterize the difference between agile and heavy
projects.
4.1. Discrete or Continuous Adjustment
Mutual adjustment is not a very precise concept. Mintzberg also talks about liaison
devices, and identifies the meeting as the prime vehicle used to facilitate mutual
adjustment. Meetings span a whole range from ad hoc gatherings to the work of
task forces and standing committees. Other liaison devices are integrating managers
and liaison positions.
Using the ordinary vocabulary of project management we can list a number of
liaison devices:
· People filling certain roles: Project manager, steering committee chairman,
sponsor, customer representative, etc.
· Groups of people meeting to perform coordination: Project group, steering
committee, user group, etc.
· Artifacts documenting agreements in a project: Requirement specification,
project plan, product architecture, minutes from steering committee meeting,
etc.
The extent to which the various liaison devices are used define a broad range of
different ways to manage a project. Clearly the presence of some of these devices
can make up for the absence of others. Thus it is problematic to focus on one of the
devices, the project plan, and to include it in a definition of the concept of project.
- 9 -
"To plan or not to plan" seems to be a major distinction between heavy and agile
projects. Boehm and Turner (2004) call the traditional methods or approaches, that
are not agile, for "plan-driven". Abstracting a little further, we can see this distinction
as a preference in liaison devices. We can also describe the distinction as a
difference in the frequency of the mutual adjustment. This leads to suggesting the
following definitions:
Definition 3: An agile project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating
mechanism is continuous mutual adjustment.
Definition 4: An heavy project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating
mechanism is discrete mutual adjustment.
4.2. Complexity and Ideology
When we tighten the differentia from definition 2 to definitions 3 and 4 we reduce
the number of phenomena that fit the definitions. This leads to the question of what
the corresponding restriction on definition 1 should be. This is the question of what
kind of tasks agile and heavy projects respectively can be used to solve. Obviously
the differentia to examine is complexity. Beck (2000) gives us a clue in the chapter
where he discusses when you shouldn't try XP:
Size clearly matters. You probably couldn't run an XP project with a hundred programmers.
Nor fifty. Nor twenty, probably. Ten is definitely doable.
Highsmith (2004) is not happy with this restriction:
One myth about agile approaches goes something like this: "APM (or pick any agile
methodology) works well for smaller projects, but it doesn't scale to larger ones." [APM is
Highsmith's abbreviation for Agile Project Management.]
Therefore Highsmith proposes a number of techniques to facilitate scaling. One of
these is a "Commitment-Accountability Protocol Card". It describes
· an outcome,
· acceptance criteria,
· supplier team,
· consumer team(s),
· intermediate deliverables,
· and estimated work effort.
This is clearly a written documentation of an agreement. Once it is produced we
would only expect it to be changed at discrete intervals. If we added a deadline this
would be a reinvention of a project plan, albeit a decentralized one. So Highsmith
has not contradicted Beck. He is proposing to scale the agile methods by including a
key element from the heavy methods.
The number of developers is not a sufficient differentia when we wish to
determine the kind of tasks where agile and heavy projects are useful. Boehm and
- 10 -
Turner (2004) proposes 5 dimensions to describe the situational factors
distinguishing agile from heavy projects:
As a "summary of summaries," we have concluded that there are five critical factors involved in
determining the relative suitability of agile or plan-driven methods in a particular project
situation. These factors ... are the project's size, criticality, dynamism, personnel, and culture
factors.
Some of these factors may be abstracted into the differentia of complexity. But the
readiness of the IS people and the surroundings to accept agile or heavy methods
clearly matters. This is what Boehm and Turner call culture. We might also talk
about ideology. So we may conclude that there is not a simple extension of
definition 1 that can define agile and heavy projects based on the difference of tasks.
4.3. Technology Cost and Strategy
Two other dimension that in general should be involved in characterizing IS projects
are strategy and technology, in particular the costs of using various technologies.
Indeed these are the defining distinctions for Highsmith (2004):
When we reduce the cost of experimentation enough, the entire Economics of how we do
product development changes - it switches from a process based on anticipation (define, design,
and build) to one based on adaption (envision, explore, and adapt).
The available technology, in this case the technology for experimentation, and we
could add the technology for rework, is a major characteristic of the task. The
strategy, in this case anticipation or adaption, is a major internal feature of a project.
5. Definitions in Literature
In this section we will discuss various definitions of project found in literature. We
take a look at some dictionary definitions, a textbook definition, three definitions
from management and IS standards, and a definition from general project
management theory. The overall impression is that - although it is hard to find two
identical definitions - all definitions revolve around a common center, and that this
not too far from the definitions in this paper.
5.1. Dictionary Definitions
Collins Cobuild (1987) defines project this way:
A project is 1.1. an idea or plan that you intend to carry out in the future or that is being
carried out at present. 1.2. a detailed study of a particular subject.
Webster (1989) defines project this way:
project. 1. something that is contemplated, devised, or planned; plan; scheme. 2. a large or
major undertaking, esp. one involving considerable money, personnel, and equipment. 3. a
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specific task of investigation, esp. in scolarship. 4. Educ. an educational assignment
necessitating personal initiative on the part of a student.
In most of the definitions there is an absence of a proper genus proximum. Some of
the definitions indicate complexity as a distinguishing characteristic. It is hard to
find uniqueness as a property. These definitions are probably typical for the popular
perception of the concept of a project. In their vagueness they are not incorrect, but
they are not a sound basis for building a theory about projects. It is difficult to
understand that many authors of textbooks on projects do not take the effort to
discuss their own definition.
5.2. A Textbook Definition
Many textbooks and standards make heavily use of the word project without
defining the concept explicitly. Among them are Highsmith (2004), McConnell
(1998), Briner et al. (1996), and Page-Jones (1985). Two authors that do define
project are Weiss and Wysocki (1992):
A project is defined as having the following characteristics:
- Complex and numerous activities
- Unique - a one-time set of events
- Finite - with a begin and end date
- Limited resources and budget
- Many people involved, usually across several functional areas in the organizations
- Sequenced activities
- Goal-oriented
- End product or service must result
If there is any priority in this sequence we will notice that the first two characteristics
are the same as in our definition 1. This definition illustrates that authors of
textbooks cannot depend on the popular definitions. This definition is much more
narrow and precise than the dictionary definitions.
There is an abundance of characteristics in this definition. Some of them could
be derived from the others. That would reduce the redundancy in the definition.
The genus is not stated explicitly, but the following reveals that it is task:
... it is evident that a task becomes a project when the above factors begin to dominate ...
This is a typical way of using the words task and project. It makes it difficult to
distinguish between the task and the organization set up to solve it. And we need to
do that when we talk project management.
5.3. A Standard Definition: PMBOK
"A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" (Project Management
Institute, 2000) has the following definition:
…a project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.
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Here the genus is endeavor. This facilitates the distinction between the task and the
process of solving the task. However, the identity of the people who perform this
process is weakened by this definition.
Uniqueness is a distinguishing characteristic along with the time limitation.
However, the uniqueness is associated to the result and not the task. This is too
narrow a definition. Reproducing an existing product under quite different
circumstances could be a very challenging task that would justify a project.
Complexity is absent from the definition. This makes it too broad.
5.4. A Standard Definition: CMMI-SW
"Project" is a central concept in the Capability Maturity Model Integration for
Software Engineering (CMMI-SW) (Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering
Institute, 2002). Three key process areas carry the word "project" in their names:
"Project planning", "Project monitoring and control", and "Integrated project
management". In CMMI-SW we find the following definition:
"In CMMI models, a "project" is a managed set of interrelated resources that delivers one or
more products to a customer or end user. This set of resources has a definite beginning and end
and typically operates according to a plan. Such a plan is frequently documented and specifies
the product to be delivered or implemented, the resources and funds used, the work to be done,
and a schedule for doing the work. A project can be composed of projects."
"A ...set of...resources" could be interpreted as a genus, but not as a genus
proximum. It is not a close superclass. "Organization" is defined in CMMI-SW.
However this concept is defined as an aggregate of projects, so it cannot be used as
a superclass of "project":
"An organization is typically an administrative structure in which people collectively manage
one or more projects as a whole,..."
The CMMI-SW definition of "project" is in reality a definition by decomposition.
The concept of a "project" is defined as an aggregation constructed from mainly
"resources", "products", and one "customer". Still the definition could be correct,
albeit hard to understand. But the distinguishing quality of "complexity" is missing,
which makes the definition too broad. A newsboy who temporarily delivers a paper
to a summer address is also a project according to this definition.
On other aspects CMMI-SW's definition is too narrow. There is only one
customer or end user. The situation where two or more users disagree is thus
excluded. And the software developers are abstracted into "resources". As a
consequence we should not expect to see politics or motivation as key process areas
in the CMMI-SW.
Half the text in CMMI-SW's definition of a "project" is used to define the
concept of a "(project) plan". Again definition by decomposition is used. A plan is
an aggregation of specifications of "products", "resources", "work", and a
"schedule". Without genus the essence of the "plan" is lost. Is it a unilateral
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directive or a multilateral agreement? Humphrey (1997) made a very strong case that
a project plan must be a negotiated agreement in order to sustain commitment. That
thesis is not supported very well by the CMMI-SW definition of plan.
There is a reservation in the word "typically", but we are not told what happens in
the non-typical situations. Apart from that, the definition implies that a project must
have a plan. This is not just a narrowing of the definition. It is an inclusion of a nontrivial
thesis. The necessity of the key process area "Project Planning" does not
need to be proved anymore. That is a pity. The proof could provide us with
conditions for when a project must be planned, and arguments for why a project
must be planned.
5.5. A Standard Definition: Sysperanto
Sysperanto (Alter, 2005) is an attempt to define core concepts of the IS field. It is
denoted an ontology. It defines project this way:
A project is a work system designed to go out of existence after producing a particular product.
Work system is the central concept is this ontology. It is defined this way:
Work system. A view of work as occurring through a purposeful system.
Work is defined this way:
Work. Effort applied to accomplish something within an organization or across
organizations.
Work systems are aggregates of nine elements:
· work practices,
· participants,
· information,
· technologies,
· customers,
· products & services,
· environment,
· infrastructure,
· and strategies.
In this definition we have approximately the same genus as in our definitions. Alter
reserves the word organization for an aggregation of work systems. The defining
characteristics for a project, a particular product and time limitation, are close to our
differentia, uniqueness.
But complexity is missing from the definition. Without this characteristic work
systems solving trivially simple tasks are including in the class of project.
It is interesting to note that technology and strategy are among the nine types of
components in a work system and hence in a project.
- 14 -
5.6. The 'Temporary Organization' School
In the field of management theory a contemporary school views projects as
primarily temporary organizations (Lundin and Söderholm, 1995). We
immediately notice the agreement on the genus. As differentia, temporary is clearly
necessary, but in itself insufficient.
In definitions from this school we sometimes miss Mintzberg's clear distinction
between situational factors and design parameters. One definition is given by Turner
and Müller (2003):
A project is a temporary organization to which resources are assigned to undertake a unique,
novel and transient endeavour managing the inherent uncertainty and need for integration in
order to deliver beneficial objectives of change.
If we accept novel and complex as overlapping concepts, then the first half of this
definition alligns pretty much with our definition 1. The second half of the definition
points to uncertainty, integration and change as elements of a project. In their paper
Turner and Müller argues that these elements are necessary consequences of the
features mentioned in the first half of the definition. That is why the latter elements
should be excluded from the definition and placed in a subsequent thesis.
6. Summary
It has been proposed to define a project as an organizational unit that solves a
unique and complex task. It has been demonstrated that this definition can embrace
the traditional, heavy project management methodologies and the extreme, agile
methodologies. It has been illustrated that the equivalent definition of a project as an
organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is mutual adjustment
in a simple way can be extended to explain the difference between heavy and agile
project management methodologies. The idea is to use the frequency of the mutual
adjustment as a distinguishing characteristic between agile and heavy projects.
It has been illustrated that some existing standards and textbooks have a concept
of project that revolve around a common center, and that this not too far from the
definitions in this paper. The proposed definition has been used to identify
shortcomings of some of the existing definitions.
An obvious extension of this paper - if space had allowed it - would be an
examination of the distinguishing characteristics between different IS projects. This
would require more dimensions than those discussed in this paper. Foremost we
would need a concept of the technology involved to characterize the project's task,
and we would need a concept of the project strategy to characterize the management
method.
1 answer
The Concept of 'Project': A Proposal for
a Unifying Definition
Andreas Munk-Madsen
Dept. of Computer Science, Aalborg University
amm@cs.aau.dk
Abstract. "Project" is a key concept in IS management. The word is frequently used in
textbooks and standards. Yet we seldom find a precise definition of the concept. This
paper discusses how to define the concept of a project. The proposed definition covers
both heavily formalized projects and informally organized, agile projects. Based on the
proposed definition popular existing definitions are discussed.
Keywords: Project, definition, project management, software development, agile.
1. Introduction
1.1. Motivation
Many authors give us guidelines for how we should manage projects. Yet they often
lack precision as to what they consider a project. When we read a guideline we want
to know which phenomena it applies to. We want to know what the author considers
to be a project and what is not considered a project. It would also be nice to know
whether a guideline applies to a larger class of phenomena than just projects, or
whether it only applies to a subclass of project, e.g. IS projects.
- 2 -
From a scientific point of view a precise definition is useful if we want to
reproduce the reasoning, the experiments, or the observations that lead to the
formulation of the guidelines.
Let us illustrate the problem we want to address with an example. A widespread
model for software engineering, CMMI-SW (Carnegie Mellon Software
Engineering Institute, 2002), makes heavily use of the word "project". The word is
used to denote two of the fundamental process areas, "Project Planning" and
"Project Monitoring and Control". CMMI-SW defines a project in this way:
... a "project" is a ... set of ... resources ... [that] typically operates according to a plan.
The complete definition is more complex, which in itself is a problem. We will deal
with the complete definition later. Here we only focus on a few aspects.
The first problem is the choice of a general concept from which the concept
project is specialized. A set of resources can be almost anything from money on a
bank account to food in a refrigerator. A project has little in common with these sets
of resources. So the general concept is not well chosen. It is too general.
The second problem is the word typically. It signifies that the ensuing feature is
true for most, but not all, projects. Therefore this is not a distinguishing feature. We
cannot use the feature to determine whether a given phenomenon is a project or not.
And given a project, we cannot be sure that it possesses the feature.
The third problem is that the concept of a plan is linked to the definition of a
project. It exempts CMMI-SW from arguing why a project must a have plan, as this
by definition is true in most cases.
This paper will discuss how we can remedy such problems by putting more care
into our definition of project.
1.2. Research Methodology
A definition is a part of a theory; actually a fundamental part. Creating and analyzing
definitions is a theoretical activity. Thus, it is not possible in an empirical way to
"prove" the "correctness" of a definition. Correctness is not an attribute that
applies to a definition.
The qualities of a definition are pragmatic:
· a certain conformity to the intuitive informal use of the concept,
· the simplicity and the internal consistency of the definition,
· and the elegance of how the definition helps us structure and present
existing knowledge.
The reasons for using a particular definition roughly sum up to "presentation
power".
The methodology for creating definitions is not a deductive process where the
definition is reached as a final conclusion. It is essentially an interaction between
restating proposals for definitions and testing them against relevant parts of the
existing body of knowledge. The discussion of other definitions uses a limited form
- 3 -
of textual analysis. Since these definition all claim generality, it is considered a
reasonable approach to focus on the actual text of the definitions.
The simplest way to present a proposed definition is to regard it as a hypothesis:
"This definition has high presentation power". The hypothesis can then be
supported when the definition is used to present central parts of the relevant
knowledge. The proof of the hypothesis basically resides with the reader.
That is the way in which the present paper is structured. Section 2 discusses
definitions in general. Why should we define our concepts and how can we do this?
Section 3 presents two different definitions of project drawn from the field of
organization theory. One definition focuses on the kind of tasks that is solved in a
project, the other definition focuses on the way the work in the project is organized.
Based on the theory of Mintzberg (1983) it is argued that these two definitions are
equivalent.
Section 4 shows how these definitions can be used in presenting our
understanding of software projects. It discusses the features that unite and the
features that divide two popular schools of thought in IS management, the agile and
the heavy methodologies.
Section 5 shows how the insight represented in our definitions can be used when
we discuss other definitions of project found in literature.
2. Definitions
A definition is a statement explaining the meaning of a word (Collins Cobuild,
1987). It supports identification and understanding of a phenomenon. This section
explains the purpose of definitions in science and discusses how we can construct
definitions.
2.1. Why Define?
Must we create definitions? No, in many situations we may do well without precise
definitions. Dahlbom and Mathiassen (1993) explain:
A lot of our knowledge is tacit, unformulated. Our actions are to a great extent based on knowhow,
rather than on explicitly formulated rules and principles.
They make a distinction between Platonic and Aristotelian concepts:
A lot of our knowledge is based on Platonic conceptions, on exemplary instances or
paradigmatic cases, rather than on Aristotelian concepts, explicit rules and definitions.
And they explain where we need definitions:
But if we want to develop our knowledge, to question and change our values, we must confront
them by trying to make them explicit.
Alter (2000) argues for more precise definitions in the field of IS:
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…the lack of conscious attention to the meanings of basic terms and points of reference may
be a significant impediment to effective communication and to our ability to make sense out of
research findings and even journalistic anecdotes about what seemed to work or not work in
particular situations.
Explicit definitions are important in science. Definitions improve communication
and understanding. Precise definitions help us to ensure that we talk about the same
phenomena. Precise definitions makes it easier to check that empirical evidence
support theoretical theses. Precise definitions also help avoiding circular reasoning
where what appears as a thesis is only a redundant restatement of basic
assumptions.
Definitions are important prerequisites for the conceptual grounding that is a part
of the multi-grounding of design theories proposed by Goldkuhl (2004).
There is a limit to the clarity we can achieve through definitions. We are using
natural language to describe phenomena only partially understood. Some of these
phenomena belong to the real world and can only be partially formalized. Still, this
does not contradict the underlying assumption that some definitions are better than
others for supporting identification and understanding.
2.2. The Format of Definitions
We normally define a concept by relating it to other concepts that we assume the
reader is familiar with. This can be done is different ways.
We can decompose the concept and explain it as an aggregate of other concepts.
E.g. "A chair consists of a horizontal plate, called the seat, to which is attached one
or more legs…" Usually this kind of definition is hard to understand. It may help
us identify or even build a chair, but it does not tell us why we need a chair, and it
does not place the chair in any context.
If there is a small number of objects in the class denoted by the concept we may
just specify them. E.g. "Scandinavia consists of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden".
This is a precise specification, but it does not say anything about the characteristics
of the concept.
We may give examples of objects or subclasses in the class denoted by the
concept, but that would only be a Platonic definition. It would illustrate the concept
but not give any explicit explanation.
We can associate the concept to other concepts and explain the relations to these
concepts. E.g. "Chairs are often used together with tables…" This will provide
some understanding of the context of the defined phenomenon. However, this kind
of definition may lose sharpness because of the introduction of unnecessary
concepts.
The best format for a definition is the classic Aristotelian: Definitio fit per genus
proximum et differentiam specificam. (Aristotle, 350 B.C.; Smith, 2004). Here we
explain the concept by specifying a relevant superclass and some characteristic that
distinguish the concept from neighboring classes. E.g. "A chair is a piece of
- 5 -
furniture for one person to sit on." The relevant superclass, genus proximum,
classifies the concept and the concept inherits the properties of the superclass. Thus
in our example the entire "theory" of furniture - including context and theses -
now applies to chairs.
The distinguishing characteristic, differentia, should ideally tell us the features
that only the objects in the concept possess. The choice of the dimension of the
differentia is important. In the example with the chair the distinguishing dimension
is the use of the furniture. We could have chosen another dimension, e.g.
construction. This would give us a definition as: "A chair is a piece of furniture with
a horizontal plate approximately 45 cm above the floor." The choice of
distinguishing dimension in our definition depends on the kind of theory we want to
present. Is it a theory of how to use chairs or how to build chairs? Of course we
might want a combined theory of how to build useful chairs. In that case we need
both definitions, and we must discuss whether they are equivalent.
The differentia should be both necessary and sufficient to distinguish the
considered concept. Sufficient means that we will not permit irrelevant phenomena
into the considered class. Insufficiency is fairly simple to demonstrate as it can be
illustrated by an example. The inclusion of more than the necessary features in the
differentia often involves redundancy. This leads to more subtle complications as it
may confuse both argument and presentation. Elimination of redundancy from the
differentia is basically an application of the principle of Occam's Razor.
Genus proximum et differentiam specificam is only a guideline for the format of
a definition. Using the best format for a definition gives no guarantee that genus and
differentia are well chosen. We still need to evaluate proposed definitions in relation
to our other notions of the concept.
3. Projects
Project is a central phenomenon in the field of IS, as systems normally are
developed and implemented in projects. Practically everybody who talks about
system development methodology will also use the word project. However, as we
shall see later, many authors do not give a precise definition of the concept.
In this section we explore two fundamentally different definitions of project and
argue for the equivalence of these two definitions.
3.1. Two Definitions
The word project is derived from Latin where "pro" means "forward" and
"jacere" means "throw". Thus the original meaning of project is something that in
a figurative sense has been thrown forward, a proposal. The meaning has gradually
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been extended to include the process of realizing the proposal and the people who
perform the realization.
As a relevant genus for our definition of project we need a word that denotes
people working together. For this we could use "organization". However, some
people understand organization purely as a legal entity. We want our definition to
include parts of legal entities as well as people from different legal entities working
together. For this reason the genus of project is chosen to be organizational unit.
But colloquially we will use organization as a synonym.
We then need to specify the differentia, what separates a project from other kinds
of organizations. One relevant dimension for the distinguishing characteristic is the
kind of tasks solved by the organization. Inspired by Mintzberg (1983) we can
suggest the following definition:
Definition 1: A project is an organizational unit that solves a unique and complex task.
By stating that the task is unique we exclude most organizations where task
repetition is a prominent feature. This is not the case in IS development. In IS
development the task is always unique, at least to the actual developers. If not so,
they could solve the task once and just press "copy" for the rest.
The feature of uniqueness entails that the task must be delimited both in scope
and time. This delimitation may not be entirely clear in the beginning of the project,
and it may change during the course of the project. However, if we experienced a
permanent stream of changing tasks we would say that this was no longer a single
project.
The task must have some complexity before it belongs in a project. If the task is
simple most people will know how to solve it, and the amount of organizational
overhead normally associated with a project will not be needed.
We should note that both uniqueness and complexity are relative to the project
participants. That somebody on the other side of the earth has great experience in
solving the actual task and considers it simple is irrelevant if our participants are not
aware of this.
Definition 1 looks at a project from the outside. It focuses on an important
situational factor, namely what we use a project for. This raises the questions: What
are the internal characteristics of a project? And which principles apply to managing
a project? We shall address these questions shortly. But first we will consider
another definition.
An important design parameter for an organization is the way in which the people
coordinate their work, the prime coordinating mechanism. Mintzberg (1983) lists
five different coordinating mechanisms:
· direct supervision,
· standardization of work processes,
· standardization of work outputs,
· standardization of worker skills,
· and mutual adjustment.
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All of these coordinating mechanisms are used in all organizations, but in any
organization some mechanism is the most important, and this can be used as a
defining characteristic. Inspired by Mintzberg's concept of the adhocracy, we can
define project the following way:
Definition 2: A project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is
mutual adjustment.
In this definition the differentia is an internal feature. This immediately raises the
questions: What is the use of such an organization? What kind tasks is this type of
organizations suited to solve? The answers to these and the previously raised
questions follow when we argue for the equivalence of definitions 1 and 2.
3.2. The Equivalence of the Definitions
We shall argue for the equivalence of definition 1 and 2 in the sense that they in
practice describe the same phenomena.
Thesis 1: An organizational unit that solves a unique and complex task must use mutual
adjustment as the prime coordinating mechanism.
The reasoning behind this thesis is that the other coordinating mechanisms cannot
do the job. Standardization will be too expensive when we are dealing with a unique
task. Direct supervision scales badly so any medium sized or larger task will
overload the supervisor.
Thesis 2: An organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is mutual
adjustment should only be used to solve tasks that are unique and complex.
The reasoning behind thesis 2 is that, albeit projects can solve other types of tasks,
mutual adjustment compared to other mechanisms is dramatically inefficient for
coordinating repetitive work or non-complex tasks.
The reasoning for thesis 1 and 2 depends on the assertion that Mintzberg's list of
coordination mechanisms is exhaustive. This is an empirical fact that according to
Mintzberg so far holds pretty much true.
Thesis 1 and 2 can be combined to thesis 3. This may be seen as an application
of Mintzberg's Extended Configuration Thesis on the domain of project
organization.
Thesis 3: Definition 1 is equivalent to definition 2.
Thus it becomes a matter of perspective which definition of project we choose. From
a theoretical viewpoint the internal characteristics will perhaps best represent the
essence of a project. From an application perspective the natural choice would be to
start with the problem, definition 1, and then use thesis 3 to state that definition 2 is
the solution.
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4. Agile and Heavy Projects
A problem that has arisen in the last few years is how to explain the agile projects
(Beck et al., 2001). They are definitely phenomena that we should call projects as
they fulfil both definition 1 and 2 above. However, they fit badly into the CMMISW
definition, as one of the core values of the agile manifesto explicitly downgrade
the concept of plan (Beck et al., 2001):
We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:…Responding to change over following a plan
It is a relevant exercise to explain, in a simple way, what agile and heavy projects
have in common and where they differ. Definitions 1 and 2 is one way of explaining
the communality between the two different types of projects. To explain the
difference we must look deeper into the distinguishing property mutual adjustment.
There is a wide spectrum of ways in which mutual adjustment can take place.
This spectrum is reflected in the great variation among different projects. In this
section we first describe the different ways in which a project can be coordinated,
and we relate some of these differences to the dimension spanned by the frequency
with which the mutual adjustment is performed. Secondly we discuss which tasks
agile and heavy methods are suited to solve. Finally we mention two other important
dimensions that could be used to characterize the difference between agile and heavy
projects.
4.1. Discrete or Continuous Adjustment
Mutual adjustment is not a very precise concept. Mintzberg also talks about liaison
devices, and identifies the meeting as the prime vehicle used to facilitate mutual
adjustment. Meetings span a whole range from ad hoc gatherings to the work of
task forces and standing committees. Other liaison devices are integrating managers
and liaison positions.
Using the ordinary vocabulary of project management we can list a number of
liaison devices:
· People filling certain roles: Project manager, steering committee chairman,
sponsor, customer representative, etc.
· Groups of people meeting to perform coordination: Project group, steering
committee, user group, etc.
· Artifacts documenting agreements in a project: Requirement specification,
project plan, product architecture, minutes from steering committee meeting,
etc.
The extent to which the various liaison devices are used define a broad range of
different ways to manage a project. Clearly the presence of some of these devices
can make up for the absence of others. Thus it is problematic to focus on one of the
devices, the project plan, and to include it in a definition of the concept of project.
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"To plan or not to plan" seems to be a major distinction between heavy and agile
projects. Boehm and Turner (2004) call the traditional methods or approaches, that
are not agile, for "plan-driven". Abstracting a little further, we can see this distinction
as a preference in liaison devices. We can also describe the distinction as a
difference in the frequency of the mutual adjustment. This leads to suggesting the
following definitions:
Definition 3: An agile project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating
mechanism is continuous mutual adjustment.
Definition 4: An heavy project is an organizational unit where the prime coordinating
mechanism is discrete mutual adjustment.
4.2. Complexity and Ideology
When we tighten the differentia from definition 2 to definitions 3 and 4 we reduce
the number of phenomena that fit the definitions. This leads to the question of what
the corresponding restriction on definition 1 should be. This is the question of what
kind of tasks agile and heavy projects respectively can be used to solve. Obviously
the differentia to examine is complexity. Beck (2000) gives us a clue in the chapter
where he discusses when you shouldn't try XP:
Size clearly matters. You probably couldn't run an XP project with a hundred programmers.
Nor fifty. Nor twenty, probably. Ten is definitely doable.
Highsmith (2004) is not happy with this restriction:
One myth about agile approaches goes something like this: "APM (or pick any agile
methodology) works well for smaller projects, but it doesn't scale to larger ones." [APM is
Highsmith's abbreviation for Agile Project Management.]
Therefore Highsmith proposes a number of techniques to facilitate scaling. One of
these is a "Commitment-Accountability Protocol Card". It describes
· an outcome,
· acceptance criteria,
· supplier team,
· consumer team(s),
· intermediate deliverables,
· and estimated work effort.
This is clearly a written documentation of an agreement. Once it is produced we
would only expect it to be changed at discrete intervals. If we added a deadline this
would be a reinvention of a project plan, albeit a decentralized one. So Highsmith
has not contradicted Beck. He is proposing to scale the agile methods by including a
key element from the heavy methods.
The number of developers is not a sufficient differentia when we wish to
determine the kind of tasks where agile and heavy projects are useful. Boehm and
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Turner (2004) proposes 5 dimensions to describe the situational factors
distinguishing agile from heavy projects:
As a "summary of summaries," we have concluded that there are five critical factors involved in
determining the relative suitability of agile or plan-driven methods in a particular project
situation. These factors ... are the project's size, criticality, dynamism, personnel, and culture
factors.
Some of these factors may be abstracted into the differentia of complexity. But the
readiness of the IS people and the surroundings to accept agile or heavy methods
clearly matters. This is what Boehm and Turner call culture. We might also talk
about ideology. So we may conclude that there is not a simple extension of
definition 1 that can define agile and heavy projects based on the difference of tasks.
4.3. Technology Cost and Strategy
Two other dimension that in general should be involved in characterizing IS projects
are strategy and technology, in particular the costs of using various technologies.
Indeed these are the defining distinctions for Highsmith (2004):
When we reduce the cost of experimentation enough, the entire economics of how we do
product development changes - it switches from a process based on anticipation (define, design,
and build) to one based on adaption (envision, explore, and adapt).
The available technology, in this case the technology for experimentation, and we
could add the technology for rework, is a major characteristic of the task. The
strategy, in this case anticipation or adaption, is a major internal feature of a project.
5. Definitions in Literature
In this section we will discuss various definitions of project found in literature. We
take a look at some dictionary definitions, a textbook definition, three definitions
from management and IS standards, and a definition from general project
management theory. The overall impression is that - although it is hard to find two
identical definitions - all definitions revolve around a common center, and that this
not too far from the definitions in this paper.
5.1. Dictionary Definitions
Collins Cobuild (1987) defines project this way:
A project is 1.1. an idea or plan that you intend to carry out in the future or that is being
carried out at present. 1.2. a detailed study of a particular subject.
Webster (1989) defines project this way:
project. 1. something that is contemplated, devised, or planned; plan; scheme. 2. a large or
major undertaking, esp. one involving considerable money, personnel, and equipment. 3. a
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specific task of investigation, esp. in scolarship. 4. Educ. an educational assignment
necessitating personal initiative on the part of a student.
In most of the definitions there is an absence of a proper genus proximum. Some of
the definitions indicate complexity as a distinguishing characteristic. It is hard to
find uniqueness as a property. These definitions are probably typical for the popular
perception of the concept of a project. In their vagueness they are not incorrect, but
they are not a sound basis for building a theory about projects. It is difficult to
understand that many authors of textbooks on projects do not take the effort to
discuss their own definition.
5.2. A Textbook Definition
Many textbooks and standards make heavily use of the word project without
defining the concept explicitly. Among them are Highsmith (2004), McConnell
(1998), Briner et al. (1996), and Page-Jones (1985). Two authors that do define
project are Weiss and Wysocki (1992):
A project is defined as having the following characteristics:
- Complex and numerous activities
- Unique - a one-time set of events
- Finite - with a begin and end date
- Limited resources and budget
- Many people involved, usually across several functional areas in the organizations
- Sequenced activities
- Goal-oriented
- End product or service must result
If there is any priority in this sequence we will notice that the first two characteristics
are the same as in our definition 1. This definition illustrates that authors of
textbooks cannot depend on the popular definitions. This definition is much more
narrow and precise than the dictionary definitions.
There is an abundance of characteristics in this definition. Some of them could
be derived from the others. That would reduce the redundancy in the definition.
The genus is not stated explicitly, but the following reveals that it is task:
... it is evident that a task becomes a project when the above factors begin to dominate ...
This is a typical way of using the words task and project. It makes it difficult to
distinguish between the task and the organization set up to solve it. And we need to
do that when we talk project management.
5.3. A Standard Definition: PMBOK
"A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" (Project Management
Institute, 2000) has the following definition:
…a project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.
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Here the genus is endeavor. This facilitates the distinction between the task and the
process of solving the task. However, the identity of the people who perform this
process is weakened by this definition.
Uniqueness is a distinguishing characteristic along with the time limitation.
However, the uniqueness is associated to the result and not the task. This is too
narrow a definition. Reproducing an existing product under quite different
circumstances could be a very challenging task that would justify a project.
Complexity is absent from the definition. This makes it too broad.
5.4. A Standard Definition: CMMI-SW
"Project" is a central concept in the Capability Maturity Model Integration for
Software Engineering (CMMI-SW) (Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering
Institute, 2002). Three key process areas carry the word "project" in their names:
"Project planning", "Project monitoring and control", and "Integrated project
management". In CMMI-SW we find the following definition:
"In CMMI models, a "project" is a managed set of interrelated resources that delivers one or
more products to a customer or end user. This set of resources has a definite beginning and end
and typically operates according to a plan. Such a plan is frequently documented and specifies
the product to be delivered or implemented, the resources and funds used, the work to be done,
and a schedule for doing the work. A project can be composed of projects."
"A ...set of...resources" could be interpreted as a genus, but not as a genus
proximum. It is not a close superclass. "Organization" is defined in CMMI-SW.
However this concept is defined as an aggregate of projects, so it cannot be used as
a superclass of "project":
"An organization is typically an administrative structure in which people collectively manage
one or more projects as a whole,..."
The CMMI-SW definition of "project" is in reality a definition by decomposition.
The concept of a "project" is defined as an aggregation constructed from mainly
"resources", "products", and one "customer". Still the definition could be correct,
albeit hard to understand. But the distinguishing quality of "complexity" is missing,
which makes the definition too broad. A newsboy who temporarily delivers a paper
to a summer address is also a project according to this definition.
On other aspects CMMI-SW's definition is too narrow. There is only one
customer or end user. The situation where two or more users disagree is thus
excluded. And the software developers are abstracted into "resources". As a
consequence we should not expect to see politics or motivation as key process areas
in the CMMI-SW.
Half the text in CMMI-SW's definition of a "project" is used to define the
concept of a "(project) plan". Again definition by decomposition is used. A plan is
an aggregation of specifications of "products", "resources", "work", and a
"schedule". Without genus the essence of the "plan" is lost. Is it a unilateral
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directive or a multilateral agreement? Humphrey (1997) made a very strong case that
a project plan must be a negotiated agreement in order to sustain commitment. That
thesis is not supported very well by the CMMI-SW definition of plan.
There is a reservation in the word "typically", but we are not told what happens in
the non-typical situations. Apart from that, the definition implies that a project must
have a plan. This is not just a narrowing of the definition. It is an inclusion of a nontrivial
thesis. The necessity of the key process area "Project Planning" does not
need to be proved anymore. That is a pity. The proof could provide us with
conditions for when a project must be planned, and arguments for why a project
must be planned.
5.5. A Standard Definition: Sysperanto
Sysperanto (Alter, 2005) is an attempt to define core concepts of the IS field. It is
denoted an ontology. It defines project this way:
A project is a work system designed to go out of existence after producing a particular product.
Work system is the central concept is this ontology. It is defined this way:
Work system. A view of work as occurring through a purposeful system.
Work is defined this way:
Work. Effort applied to accomplish something within an organization or across
organizations.
Work systems are aggregates of nine elements:
· work practices,
· participants,
· information,
· technologies,
· customers,
· products & services,
· environment,
· infrastructure,
· and strategies.
In this definition we have approximately the same genus as in our definitions. Alter
reserves the word organization for an aggregation of work systems. The defining
characteristics for a project, a particular product and time limitation, are close to our
differentia, uniqueness.
But complexity is missing from the definition. Without this characteristic work
systems solving trivially simple tasks are including in the class of project.
It is interesting to note that technology and strategy are among the nine types of
components in a work system and hence in a project.
- 14 -
5.6. The 'Temporary Organization' School
In the field of management theory a contemporary school views projects as
primarily temporary organizations (Lundin and Söderholm, 1995). We
immediately notice the agreement on the genus. As differentia, temporary is clearly
necessary, but in itself insufficient.
In definitions from this school we sometimes miss Mintzberg's clear distinction
between situational factors and design parameters. One definition is given by Turner
and Müller (2003):
A project is a temporary organization to which resources are assigned to undertake a unique,
novel and transient endeavour managing the inherent uncertainty and need for integration in
order to deliver beneficial objectives of change.
If we accept novel and complex as overlapping concepts, then the first half of this
definition alligns pretty much with our definition 1. The second half of the definition
points to uncertainty, integration and change as elements of a project. In their paper
Turner and Müller argues that these elements are necessary consequences of the
features mentioned in the first half of the definition. That is why the latter elements
should be excluded from the definition and placed in a subsequent thesis.
6. Summary
It has been proposed to define a project as an organizational unit that solves a
unique and complex task. It has been demonstrated that this definition can embrace
the traditional, heavy project management methodologies and the extreme, agile
methodologies. It has been illustrated that the equivalent definition of a project as an
organizational unit where the prime coordinating mechanism is mutual adjustment
in a simple way can be extended to explain the difference between heavy and agile
project management methodologies. The idea is to use the frequency of the mutual
adjustment as a distinguishing characteristic between agile and heavy projects.
It has been illustrated that some existing standards and textbooks have a concept
of project that revolve around a common center, and that this not too far from the
definitions in this paper. The proposed definition has been used to identify
shortcomings of some of the existing definitions.
An obvious extension of this paper - if space had allowed it - would be an
examination of the distinguishing characteristics between different IS projects. This
would require more dimensions than those discussed in this paper. Foremost we
would need a concept of the technology involved to characterize the project's task,
and we would need a concept of the project strategy to characterize the management
method.
1 answer
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audibilities audiological audiologists audiometries audiovisuals augmentation augmentative augustnesses auscultating auscultation auscultatory auspiciously autecologies authenticate authenticity autistically autoantibody autochthones autocratical autodidactic autoeciously autoerotisms autogenously autografting autographies autographing autohypnoses autohypnosis autohypnotic autoimmunity automaticity automatizing automobiling automobilist automobility automorphism autonomously autorotating autorotation autosuggests autotomizing autotrophies autoxidation auxotrophies availability avariciously avascularity aversenesses aversiveness aviculturist avitaminoses avitaminosis avitaminotic avuncularity axiomatizing axisymmetric azathioprine azoospermias azotobacters babesiosises bacchanalian bachelordoms bachelorette bachelorhood backbenchers backbreakers backbreaking backcourtman backcourtmen backcrossing backdropping backgrounded backgrounder backhandedly backlighting backpedaling backpedalled backscatters backslappers backslapping backsplashes backstabbers backstabbing backstitched backstitches backstopping backtracking backwardness backwoodsman backwoodsmen bactericidal bactericides bacteriocins bacteriology bacteriostat bacteriurias bailiffships balderdashes ballcarriers balletomanes balletomania ballhandling ballyragging balneologies banderillero bankruptcies bantamweight baptisteries barbarianism barbarically barbiturates bardolatries barnstormers barnstorming baroreceptor barquentines barrelhouses barrennesses barricadoing basementless baserunnings basidiospore basification bastardising bastardizing bastinadoing bathetically bathymetries bathypelagic bathyscaphes bathyspheres battlefields battlefronts battleground battlemented battlewagons beachcombers beachcombing bearbaitings beardtongues beatifically beautifulest beaverboards becudgelling bedazzlement bedcoverings bedevilments bedizenments bedrivelling befuddlement beggarliness beglamouring begrudgingly beguilements behaviorally behaviorisms behaviorists beleaguering belittlement belletristic belligerence belligerency belligerents bellybuttons benchwarmers benedictions benefactions benefactress beneficences beneficently beneficially beneficiated beneficiates benevolences benevolently benignancies benzaldehyde benzoapyrene benzophenone bereavements beseechingly bespattering bespectacled besprinkling bestialities bestializing betweenbrain betweentimes bewilderedly bewilderment bewitcheries bewitchingly bewitchments bibliography bibliolaters bibliologies bibliomaniac bibliomanias bibliopegies bibliopegist bibliophiles bibliophilic bibliopolist bibliothecae bibliothecal bibliothecas bibulousness bicameralism bicarbonates bicentennial biflagellate bifunctional bifurcations bigheartedly bilateralism bilharziases bilharziasis bilingualism billboarding billingsgate billionaires bimetallisms bimetallists bimillennial bimodalities binocularity bioacoustics bioavailable biochemicals biochemistry biodegrading biodiversity bioenergetic bioengineers bioethicists biofeedbacks biogeography biographical biologically biomaterials biomechanics biomedicines biometrician biomolecular biomolecules biophysicist bioscientist biosyntheses biosynthesis biosynthetic biotechnical biotelemetry biparentally bipartitions bipedalities bipolarities bipolarizing bipropellant biquadratics biracialisms birdwatchers birefringent bitchinesses bitternesses bittersweets bituminizing biuniqueness blabbermouth blackballing blackberries blackbirders blackbirding blackguarded blackguardly blackhanders blackjacking blacklisters blacklisting blackmailers blackmailing blacktopping bladderworts blandishment blastocoeles blastocoelic blastospores blastulation blatherskite bleacherites blearinesses blimpishness blindfolding blissfulness blisteringly blithesomely blockbusters blockbusting bloodinesses bloodletting bloodmobiles bloodstained bloodstreams bloodsuckers bloodsucking bloodthirsty blueprinting bluestocking bluishnesses blunderingly blurrinesses blusteringly boardsailing boardsailors boastfulness boatbuilders boatbuilding bobsleddings boddhisattva bodhisattvas bodybuilders bodybuilding bodychecking bohemianisms boilermakers boilerplates boisterously bolshevizing bombardments bombinations bonefishings bonnyclabber bookbindings bookkeepings booksellings boomeranging boondogglers boondoggling bootlessness bootstrapped boringnesses borohydrides borosilicate botherations bottlenecked bottomlessly boulevardier bourgeoisies bourgeoisify boutonnieres bowdlerising bowdlerizers bowdlerizing boyishnesses brachiations brackishness bradycardias braggadocios braininesses brainstormed brainstormer brainteasers brainwashers brainwashing branchiopods brassinesses brattinesses brawninesses brazennesses breadbaskets breadboarded breadwinners breadwinning breakfasters breakfasting breakthrough breastplates breaststroke breathlessly breathtaking brecciations breechblocks breechcloths breechclouts breechloader breezinesses bricklayings brightnesses brilliancies brilliantine brinkmanship bristletails broadcasters broadcasting brokennesses bromegrasses brominations bromouracils bronchitides bronchitises bronchogenic bronchoscope bronchoscopy bronchospasm broncobuster brontosaurus broodinesses broomballers brotherhoods brushability bryophyllums bubbleheaded buccaneering buccaneerish buffaloberry buffooneries bullbaitings bulldoggings bullfighters bullfighting bullheadedly bullmastiffs bullterriers bullwhipping bullyragging bumbershoots bunchberries bunchgrasses bureaucratic burglarizing burglarproof burgomasters bushrangings bushwhackers bushwhacking businesslike butterfishes butterflyers butterflying butterscotch buttonbushes buttonholers buttonholing buttonhooked cabbageworms cabinetmaker cabinetworks cachinnating cachinnation cacographies cadaverously calamitously calcareously calcinations calculatedly calculations calibrations californiums calisthenics calligrapher calligraphic callownesses calorimeters calorimetric calumniating calumniation calumniators calumniously calypsonians camaraderies cameraperson camouflaging camphorating canalization cancelations cancellation candelabrums candescences candidatures candidnesses candlefishes candleholder candlelights candlepowers candlesticks candyflosses cannabinoids cannibalised cannibalises cannibalisms cannibalized cannibalizes cannonballed canonicities canonization canorousness cantankerous cantharidins cantilevered cantillating cantillation capabilities capacitances capacitating capacitation capacitively caparisoning capercaillie capercailzie capitalising capitalistic capitalizing capitularies capitulating capitulation capriciously caprolactams captainships captiousness captivations caramelising caramelizing caravanserai carbohydrase carbohydrate carbonaceous carbonadoing carbonations carboxylases carboxylated carboxylates carburetions carburetters carburetting carburettors carcinogenic cardinalates cardinalship cardiographs cardiography cardiologies cardiologist cardiotonics cardsharpers carelessness caricaturing caricaturist carillonneur carillonning carminatives carpentering carpetbagger carrageenans carrageenins carriageways carrottopped carryforward cartographer cartographic cartoonishly cartwheelers cartwheeling cassiterites castigations casualnesses catabolizing catachrestic catadioptric cataphoreses cataphoresis cataphoretic catastrophes catastrophic catchphrases catechetical categorising categorizing caterpillars caterwauling catheterized catheterizes cathodically catholically catholicates catholicized catholicizes catholicoses cationically caudillismos cauliflowers causticities cautiousness cavalierisms celebrations cellulitides cellulitises cellulolytic cementations cementitious censoriously centenarians centennially centerboards centeredness centerpieces centimorgans centralising centralistic centralities centralizers centralizing centricities centrifugals centrifuging cephalically cephalometry cephalothins ceratopsians cerebrations cerebrosides ceremonially certificated certificates cervicitides cervicitises chaetognaths chairmanning chairmanship chairpersons chalcedonies chalcogenide chalcopyrite chamaephytes chamberlains chambermaids championship chancinesses chandeliered changelessly channelizing chansonniers chanterelles chanticleers chaperonages chaplaincies characterful characteries charactering characterize charbroilers charbroiling charcuteries charismatics charlatanism chartularies chastenesses chastisement chatoyancies chatterboxes chattinesses chauffeuring chaulmoogras chauvinistic checkerberry checkerboard checkmarking cheekinesses cheerfullest cheerfulness cheerinesses cheerleaders cheerleading cheeseburger cheesecloths cheeseparing cheesinesses chemiosmotic chemisorbing chemosurgery chemotherapy chemotropism cherrystones cherubically chesterfield chiaroscuros chickenpoxes childbearing childishness childproofed chillinesses chimerically chimichangas chimneypiece chinaberries chinoiseries chirographer chirographic chiromancers chiromancies chiropodists chiropractic chiropractor chiropterans chitchatting chitterlings chivalrously chlorenchyma chlorinating chlorination chlorinators chlorinities chloroformed chlorohydrin chlorophylls chloropicrin chloroplasts chloroprenes chloroquines chocolatiers choicenesses choirmasters chokeberries cholerically cholesterols chondriosome chondroitins choppinesses choreographs choreography chorographer chorographic chowderheads chrestomathy chrismations christenings christianias chromaticism chromaticity chromatogram chrominances chromocenter chromonemata chromophores chromophoric chromoplasts chromosphere chronicities chronographs chronography chronologers chronologies chronologist chronometers chronometric chrysarobins chrysoberyls chrysomelids chrysophytes chrysoprases chubbinesses chuckawallas chuckleheads chugalugging chumminesses churchgoings churchianity churchliness churchwarden churlishness chylomicrons chymotrypsin chymotryptic cinematheque cinematizing cinquecentos circuitously circularised circularises circularized circularizes circularness circulatable circulations circumcenter circumcircle circumcisers circumcising circumcision circumflexes circumfluent circumfluous circumfusing circumfusion circumjacent circumscribe circumstance circumvented cirrocumulus cirrostratus citification citizenesses citizenships citriculture citronellals citronellols civilianized civilianizes civilisation civilization cladogeneses cladogenesis cladogenetic cladophyllum clairaudient clairvoyance clairvoyants clamminesses clangorously clannishness clapboarding clapperclaws clarinetists clarinettist classicality classicistic classicizing classifiable classinesses clatteringly claudication clavieristic cleanability clearstories cleistogamic clerestories clericalisms clericalists clevernesses cliffhangers climacterics climatically cliquishness clitorectomy cloddishness cloistresses closemouthed clotheshorse clotheslined clotheslines clothespress cloudberries cloudinesses cloverleaves clownishness cloxacillins clubbinesses clumsinesses coacervation coadaptation coadjutrices coagulations coalescences coalitionist coarctations coarsenesses coauthorship cobblestoned cobblestones cocaptaining cocarcinogen cochairwoman cochairwomen cockeyedness cockfighting cockleshells cockneyfying cocksureness cocounseling cocounselled cocultivated cocultivates cocurricular codefendants codependence codependency codependents codevelopers codeveloping codicologies codification codirections codiscovered codiscoverer coeducations coefficients coelenterate coequalities coerciveness coercivities coevolutions coexistences coffeehouses coffeemakers cogeneration cogenerators cohabitation cohesionless cohesiveness cohomologies cohostessing coincidences coincidental coincidently coinsurances coleopterans coleopterist coleopterous collaborated collaborates collaborator collagenases collaterally collectables collectibles collectively collectivise collectivism collectivist collectivity collectivize collegiality collegiately collembolans collembolous collenchymas colligations collimations collinearity collocations colloquially collywobbles cologarithms colonialisms colonialists colonialized colonializes colonialness colonisation colonization colorfulness colorimeters colorimetric colorization columniation comanagement combinations combustibles comelinesses comeuppances comfortingly comicalities commandeered commanderies commandingly commandments commemorated commemorates commemorator commencement commendation commendatory commensalism commensurate commentaries commentating commentators commercially comminations comminutions commiserated commiserates commissarial commissariat commissaries commissioned commissioner committeeman committeemen commodifying commodiously commonalties commonnesses commonplaces commonwealth communalisms communalists communalized communalizes communicable communicably communicants communicated communicatee communicates communicator commutations companionate companioning companionway comparatists comparatives compartments compatriotic compellation compellingly compensating compensation compensative compensators compensatory competencies competitions compilations complacences complacently complainants complaisance complemental complemented completeness complexation complexified complexifies complexional complexioned complexities compliancies complicacies complicating complication complicities complicitous complimented componential comportments composedness compositions compoundable comprehended compressedly compressible compressions compromisers compromising comptrollers compulsively compulsivity compulsorily compunctions compunctious compurgation compurgators computations computerdoms computereses computerised computerises computerists computerized computerizes computerless computerlike computerniks comradeships concanavalin concatenated concatenates concealingly concealments concelebrant concelebrate concentering concentrated concentrates concentrator conceptacles conceptional conceptually concernments concertgoers concertgoing concertizing concessional concessioner concessively conchoidally conchologies conchologist conciliating conciliation conciliative conciliators conciliatory concinnities conclusively concomitance concomitants concordances concordantly concrescence concreteness concretizing concubinages concupiscent concurrences concurrently condemnation condemnatory condensation condescended conditionals conditioners conditioning condominiums condonations conductances conductivity conductorial conduplicate confabulated confabulates confabulator confectioner confederated confederates conferencing conferential conferrences confessional confidential confinements confirmation confirmatory confiscating confiscation confiscators confiscatory conflictions conformances conformation conformities confoundedly confusedness confutations congealments congelations congeniality congenitally conglobating conglobation conglomerate conglutinate congratulate congregating congregation congregators congruencies conidiophore conjecturers conjecturing conjugations conjunctions conjunctivae conjunctival conjunctivas conjunctives conjunctures conjurations connaturally connectional connectively connectivity connoisseurs connotations connubialism connubiality conquistador conscionable conscripting conscription consecrating consecration consecrative consecrators consecratory consecutions consensually consentingly consequences consequently conservation conservatism conservative conservatize conservators conservatory considerable considerably consignation consignments consistences consistently consistorial consistories consociating consociation consolations consolidated consolidates consolidator consonancies conspecifics conspectuses conspiracies conspiration conspirators constabulary constellated constellates consternated consternates constipating constipation constituency constituents constituting constitution constitutive constraining constricting constriction constrictive constrictors constringent constringing constructing construction constructive constructors consultation consultative consumerisms consumerists consumership consummately consummating consummation consummative consummators consummatory consumptions consumptives contagiously containerise containerize containments contaminants contaminated contaminates contaminator contemplated contemplates contemplator contemporary contemporize contemptible contemptibly contemptuous contentments conterminous contestation contextually contiguities contiguously continentals contingences contingently continuances continuation continuative continuators continuingly continuities continuously contrabasses contractible contractions contractures contradicted contradictor contraoctave contraptions contrapuntal contrariness contrariwise contrastable contraveners contravening contredanses contributing contribution contributive contributors contributory contriteness contrivances controllable controlments controverted controverter contumacious contumelious conurbations convalescent convalescing convectional conveniences conveniently conventicler conventicles conventional conventually convergences conversances conversation conversional convertibles conveyancers conveyancing conveyorised conveyorises conveyorized conveyorizes convincingly conviviality convocations convolutions convulsively cooperations cooperatives coordinately coordinating coordination coordinative coordinators copartnering copingstones copolymerize copperplates coppersmiths copresenting copresidents coprincipals coprocessing coprocessors coproduction coprophagies coprophagous coprophiliac coprophilias coprophilous coproprietor coprosperity copublishers copublishing copyrighting coquettishly coralberries cordialities corecipients corepressors corequisites coresearcher corespondent corkscrewing cornerstones cornhuskings cornstarches coronagraphs coronographs corporations corporatisms corporeality corporeities corpulencies correctional correctitude correctively correlatable correlations correlatives corresponded corroborated corroborates corroborator corrugations corruptively coruscations cosmetically cosmeticians cosmeticized cosmeticizes cosmochemist cosmogonical cosmogonists cosmographer cosmographic cosmological cosmologists cosmopolises cosmopolitan cosmopolites cosponsoring costermonger costlinesses cosurfactant cotoneasters cotransduced cotransduces cotransports cottonmouths cotyledonary coulometries councilmanic councilwoman councilwomen counsellings countability countenanced countenancer countenances counteracted counteragent counterargue counterblast counterblows countercheck counterclaim countercoups countercries counterfeits counterfired counterfires counterflows counterfoils counterforce counterimage countermands countermarch countermemos countermined countermines countermoved countermoves countermyths counteroffer counterorder counterpanes counterparts counterplans counterplays counterpleas counterplots counterploys counterpoint counterpoise counterposed counterposes counterpower counterpunch counterraids counterrally countershots countersigns countersinks counterspell counterspies counterstain counterstate countersteps counterstyle countersuing countersuits countertenor countertrade countertrend countervails counterviews counterworld countryseats countrysides countrywoman countrywomen courageously covariations covertnesses covetousness cowardliness crackbrained crackerjacks cracklewares craftinesses craftspeople craftsperson cragginesses craniofacial craniologies craniosacral craniotomies crankinesses crapshooters cravennesses creakinesses creaminesses creationisms creationists creativeness creativities creaturehood credentialed creditworthy creepinesses crematoriums crenelations crenellation crenulations creolization crepitations crescendoing criminalized criminalizes criminations crispinesses crisscrossed crisscrosses criticalness criticasters criticizable crocidolites crocodilians croquignoles crossability crossbanding crossbarring crossbearers crosscurrent crosscutting crosshatched crosshatches crosspatches crossruffing crucifixions crumminesses crustinesses cryopreserve cryosurgeons cryosurgical cryptanalyst cryptarithms cryptococcal cryptococcus cryptogamous cryptographs cryptography cryptologies cryptologist cryptomerias cryptorchids cryptorchism crystalizing crystallised crystallises crystallites crystallized crystallizer crystallizes crystalloids ctenophorans cuckooflower culminations culpableness cultivatable cultivations cumbersomely cumbrousness cumulatively cumulonimbus cunnilinctus cupellations cupronickels curabilities curarization curatorships curettements curmudgeonly currycombing cursednesses curtailments curveballing cuspidations cussednesses customhouses customshouse cutabilities cuttlefishes cyanogeneses cyanogenesis cyanogenetic cyanohydrins cybernations cybernetical cycadophytes cyclazocines cyclizations cyclodextrin cyclogeneses cyclogenesis cyclohexanes cyclonically cycloolefins cyclopaedias cyclopropane cycloserines cyclosporine cyclostyling cyclothymias cypripediums cyproterones cysticercoid cystoscopies cytochalasin cytochemical cytogenetics cytomembrane cytoskeletal cytoskeleton cytotaxonomy cytotoxicity czarevitches daintinesses damnableness damselfishes dappernesses daredeviltry daringnesses daughterless daunorubicin daydreamlike daylightings deacidifying deactivating deactivation deactivators deadlinesses deaminations deathwatches debarkations debaucheries debilitating debilitation debonairness debouchments debridements decaffeinate decalcifying decalcomania decantations decapitating decapitation decapitators decarbonated decarbonates decarbonized decarbonizer decarbonizes decarburized decarburizes decasyllabic decasyllable decelerating deceleration decelerators decemvirates decentralize decerebrated decerebrates decertifying dechlorinate decidability decimalizing decipherable decipherment decisiveness declamations declarations declassified declassifies declensional declinations decollations decolletages decolonizing decolorizers decolorizing decommission decompensate decomposable decompressed decompresses deconditions decongestant decongesting decongestion decongestive deconsecrate deconstructs decontrolled decoratively decorousness decorticated decorticates decorticator decreasingly decrementing decrepitated decrepitates decrepitudes decrescendos decussations deerstalkers deescalating deescalation defalcations defeminizing defenestrate defibrillate defibrinated defibrinates deficiencies definiteness definitional definitively definitizing deflagrating deflagration deflationary deflorations defoliations deforcements deformalized deformalizes deformations degeneracies degenerately degenerating degeneration degenerative deglaciation deglamorized deglamorizes deglutitions degradations degressively degringolade degustations dehumanizing dehumidified dehumidifier dehumidifies dehydrations deifications deionization dejectedness delaminating delamination delectations deliberately deliberating deliberation deliberative delicatessen delightfully delimitation delineations delinquently deliquescent deliquescing deliverances delocalizing delusiveness demagnetized demagnetizer demagnetizes demarcations dementedness demilitarize demimondaine demineralize demobilizing democratized democratizer democratizes demodulating demodulation demodulators demographers demographics demographies demolishment demonetizing demoniacally demonization demonologies demonologist demonstrable demonstrably demonstrated demonstrates demonstrator demoralizers demoralizing demurenesses demystifying denaturalize denaturation dendrologies dendrologist denervations denigrations denitrifiers denitrifying denominating denomination denominative denominators denouncement densitometer densitometry denticulated denuclearize denunciation denunciative denunciatory deontologies deontologist deoxidations deoxygenated deoxygenates deoxyriboses departmental dependencies depilatories depolarizers depolarizing depoliticize depolymerize depopulating depopulation deportations depositaries depositional depositories depravations depravedness depravements deprecations depreciating depreciation depreciative depreciators depreciatory depredations depressingly depressively depressurize deprivations deprograming deprogrammed deprogrammer deputization deracinating deracination derangements deregulating deregulation derelictions derepressing derepression derisiveness derivational derivatively derivatizing dermabrasion dermatitides dermatitises dermatologic dermatophyte derogatively derogatorily desacralized desacralizes desalinating desalination desalinators desalinizing descriptions desecrations desegregated desegregates desensitized desensitizer desensitizes deservedness desexualized desexualizes desiccations desiderating desideration desiderative designations desipramines desirability desirousness desolateness desolatingly despairingly desperations despisements despitefully despiteously despoilments despoliation despondences despondently despotically desquamating desquamation dessertspoon destabilized destabilizes destinations destitutions destructible destructions desulfurized desulfurizes detachedness detailedness detasselling detergencies deteriorated deteriorates determinable determinably determinants determinator determinedly determinisms determinists detestations dethronement detonability detoxicating detoxication detractively detrainments detribalized detribalizes detrimentals detumescence deuteranopes deuteranopia deuteranopic deuterations deuterostome devaluations devastations developments deverbatives deviationism deviationist devilishness devitalizing devitrifying devocalizing devotionally devoutnesses dextrorotary diabetogenic diabolically diageotropic diagnoseable diagnostical diagonalized diagonalizes diagrammable diagrammatic dialectician dialectology dialogically diamagnetism diamondbacks diaphanously diaphoretics diapositives diastereomer diastrophism diatessarons diatomaceous diatonically dibenzofuran dicarboxylic dichlorvoses dichotically dichotomists dichotomized dichotomizes dichromatism dichroscopes dicotyledons dictatorship dictionaries dictyosteles didactically didacticisms diencephalic diencephalon dietetically differencing differentiae differential difficulties diffractions diffusionism diffusionist difunctional digitalizing digitization diglycerides digressional digressively dilapidating dilapidation dilatability dilatational dilatometers dilatometric dilatoriness dilettantish dilettantism dillydallied dillydallies dilutenesses dimensioning dimercaprols dimerization diminishable diminishment diminutively dinucleotide dipeptidases diphosphates diphtheritic diphtheroids diphthongize diploblastic diplodocuses diplomatists dipsomaniacs dipterocarps directedness directnesses directorates directorship directresses disabilities disablements disaccharide disaccording disaccustoms disadvantage disaffecting disaffection disaffiliate disaffirming disaggregate disagreeable disagreeably disagreement disallowance disambiguate disannulling disappearing disappointed disapprovals disapprovers disapproving disarmaments disarranging disassembled disassembles disassociate disastrously disbandments disbelievers disbelieving disbowelling disburdening disbursement discerningly discernments discipleship disciplinary discipliners disciplining disclamation discographer discographic discomfiting discomfiture discomforted discommended discommoding discomposing discomposure disconcerted disconfirmed disconnected disconsolate discontented discontinued discontinues discordances discordantly discotheques discountable discouragers discouraging discourteous discoverable discrediting discreetness discrepantly discreteness discriminant discriminate discursively disdainfully diseconomies disembarking disembarrass disembodying disemboguing disemboweled disenchanted disenchanter disencumbers disendowment disentailing disentangled disentangles disenthralls disentitling disestablish disesteeming disfranchise disfunctions disfurnished disfurnishes disgruntling disguisement disgustfully disgustingly disharmonies disharmonize disheartened dishevelling dishonesties dishonorable dishonorably disillusions disincentive disinclining disinfectant disinfecting disinfection disinfestant disinfesting disinflation disingenuous disinherited disinhibited disintegrate disinterests disinterment disinterring disinvesting disjointedly disjunctions disjunctives disjunctures dislocations dislodgement dislodgments disloyalties dismalnesses dismembering dismissively disobedience disorderedly disorganized disorganizes disorientate disorienting dispensaries dispensation dispensatory dispersively dispiritedly displaceable displacement displeasures disportments dispositions dispossessed dispossesses dispossessor disputations disputatious disqualified disqualifies disquietudes disquisition disregardful disregarding disrelations disrelishing disremembers disreputable disreputably disrespected disruptively dissatisfied dissatisfies disseminated disseminates disseminator disseminules dissentients dissepiments dissertating dissertation dissertators disseverance disseverment dissimilarly dissimilated dissimilates dissimulated dissimulates dissimulator dissipatedly dissipations dissociating dissociation dissociative dissolutions dissuasively dissyllables dissymmetric distemperate distempering distillation distilleries distinctions distinctness distortional distractable distractedly distractible distractions distrainable distraughtly distributary distributees distributing distribution distributive distributors disturbances disturbingly disunionists disutilities ditchdiggers ditransitive diuretically divaricating divarication divergencies diversifiers diversifying diversionary diversionist diverticular diverticulum divertimenti divertimento divestitures dividendless divisibility divisionisms divisionists divisiveness divorcements doctrinaires documentable dodecahedral dodecahedron dodecaphonic doggednesses dogmatically dolomitizing dolorousness domestically domesticated domesticates domiciliated domiciliates dominatrices dominatrixes dopaminergic doppelganger dorsiventral dorsolateral dorsoventral doubleheader doublenesses doublespeaks doublethinks doubtfulness doughnutlike douroucoulis dovishnesses downloadable downshifting downwardness doxorubicins doxycyclines draftinesses draftsperson dramatically dramatizable dramaturgies drapeability dreadfulness dreadnoughts dreamfulness dreaminesses drearinesses dressinesses dressmakings drillability drillmasters drinkability driveability drivennesses droughtiness drowsinesses drumbeatings drysalteries dumbfounders dumbfounding dumortierite dunderheaded duodecillion duplications durabilities dwarfishness dyeabilities dynamometers dynamometric dynastically dysfunctions dysmenorrhea dysphemistic dysrhythmias earsplitting earthenwares earthinesses earthmovings earthshakers earthshaking earwitnesses eavesdropped eavesdropper ebulliencies eccentricity ecclesiastic ecclesiology echinococcus echolocation eclectically eclecticisms ecologically econometrics econometrist economically ecstatically ectoparasite ecumenically ecumenicisms ecumenicists ediblenesses edifications editorialist editorialize educatedness educationese educationist edulcorating edutainments effectuality effectuating effectuation effeminacies effeminately effervescent effervescing effetenesses efficacities efficiencies efflorescent efflorescing effortlessly effronteries effusiveness egalitarians egocentrisms egoistically eigenvectors einsteiniums eisteddfodau eisteddfodic ejaculations elaborations elasmobranch elasticities elatednesses elderberries electability electioneers electiveness electrically electricians electrifying electrocuted electrocutes electroforms electrogenic electrograms electrolyses electrolysis electrolytes electrolytic electrolyzed electrolyzes electrometer electrophile electrophori electroplate electroscope electroshock electrotonic electrotonus electrotyped electrotyper electrotypes eleemosynary elementarily elicitations eliminations elliptically elocutionary elocutionist elucidations elucubrating elucubration elutriations emancipating emancipation emancipators emargination emasculating emasculation emasculators embarcaderos embarkations embarrassing embattlement embellishers embellishing embezzlement embitterment emblazonment emblazonries emblematical emblematized emblematizes embolization embracements embrocations embroiderers embroideries embroidering embroilments embryogenies embryologies embryologist embryophytes emissivities emmenagogues emotionalism emotionalist emotionality emotionalize empathically emperorships emphatically emplacements empoisonment empowerments empressement emulsifiable enamorations enantiomeric enantiomorph encapsulated encapsulates encephalitic encephalitis enchainments enchantingly enchantments enchiridions encipherment encirclement encompassing encountering encrimsoning encroachment encrustation encumbrancer encumbrances encyclopedia encyclopedic endangerment endeavouring endemicities endocarditis endochondral endodermises endodontists endogenously endometrites endometritis endomorphies endomorphism endonuclease endoparasite endoperoxide endorsements endoskeletal endoskeleton endosymbiont endothelioma endothermies endotracheal enduringness energization enfeeblement enfeoffments enforcements enframements enfranchised enfranchises engarlanding engineerings engorgements engraftments engrossingly engrossments enhancements enjambements enlargements enlightening ennoblements enormousness enregistered ensanguining enshrinement enslavements ensorcelling entablatures entanglement enterobiases enterobiasis enterococcal enterococcus enterocoeles enterocoelic enterokinase enterostomal enterotoxins enterprisers enterprising entertainers entertaining enthrallment enthronement enthusiastic entirenesses entitlements entomofaunae entomofaunas entomologies entomologist entrainments entrancement entranceways entreatingly entreatments entrenchment entrepreneur entropically entrustments enucleations enumerations enunciations envelopments enviableness environments enzymologies enzymologist eosinophilia eosinophilic epeirogenies epexegetical ephemerality epicureanism epicuticular epicycloidal epidemically epidemiology epidiascopes epididymides epididymites epididymitis epiglottides epiglottises epigrammatic epigraphical epigraphists epileptiform epinephrines epiphenomena epiphytology epiphytotics episcopacies episiotomies episodically epistemology epistolaries epithalamion epithalamium epitheliomas epithelizing epoxidations equabilities equalitarian equalization equanimities equationally equestrienne equilibrants equilibrated equilibrates equilibrator equilibrists equilibriums equinoctials equipollence equipollents equiprobable equitability equivalences equivalently equivocality equivocating equivocation equivocators eradications erectilities ergastoplasm ergodicities erotizations erysipelases erythematous erythorbates erythroblast erythrocytes erythrocytic erythromycin erythrosines escapologies escapologist esoterically esotericisms espiegleries essentialism essentialist essentiality essentialize establishers establishing estheticians estheticisms estrangement eternalizing eternization ethanolamine etherealized etherealizes etherealness etherization ethicalities ethionamides ethnocentric ethnographer ethnographic ethnohistory ethnological ethnologists ethnoscience ethylbenzene etymological etymologised etymologises etymologists etymologized etymologizes eucalyptoles eucalyptuses euchromatins eudaemonisms eudaemonists eudaimonisms euhemeristic euphonically euphoniously euphorically eurythermous euthanatized euthanatizes evaginations evanescences evangelistic evangelizing evaporations evenhandedly eventfulness everblooming everlastings everydayness evidentially eviscerating evisceration evolutionary evolutionism evolutionist exacerbating exacerbation exactingness exaggerating exaggeration exaggerative exaggerators exaggeratory examinations exanthematic exasperating exasperation excavational excellencies exchangeable excitability exclamations exclusionary exclusionist exclusivisms exclusivists excogitating excogitation excogitative excoriations excrescences excrescently excruciating excruciation exculpations excursionist executioners executorship exemplifying exenterating exenteration exercitation exfoliations exhaustively exhaustivity exhibitioner exhilarating exhilaration exhilarative exhortations exiguousness exobiologies exobiologist exonerations exonucleases exopeptidase exophthalmic exophthalmos exophthalmus exorbitances exorbitantly exorcistical exoskeletons exoterically exothermally exoticnesses expansionary expansionism expansionist expatiations expatriating expatriation expatriatism expectancies expectations expectedness expectorants expectorated expectorates expediencies expediential expenditures experiencing experiential experimental experimented experimenter expertnesses explanations explantation explications explicitness exploitation exploitative explorations exponentials exportations expositional expostulated expostulates expressional expressively expressivity expropriated expropriates expropriator expurgations exsanguinate exsiccations extemporally extemporised extemporises extemporized extemporizer extemporizes extendedness extensometer extenuations exteriorised exteriorises exteriorized exteriorizes exterminated exterminates exterminator externalised externalises externalisms externalized externalizes exteroceptor extinguished extinguisher extinguishes extirpations extortionary extortionate extortioners extortionist extracranial extractively extraditable extraditions extrahepatic extralegally extralimital extralogical extramarital extramundane extramurally extramusical extraneously extranuclear extrapolated extrapolates extrapolator extrasensory extrasystole extratextual extrauterine extravagance extravagancy extravaganza extravagated extravagates extravasated extravasates extraversion extrications extroversion eyewitnesses fabrications fabulousness facelessness facilenesses facilitating facilitation facilitative facilitators facilitatory factionalism factiousness factitiously factualities fainthearted faintishness faithfulness fallaciously fallownesses familiarised familiarises familiarized familiarizes familiarness famousnesses fanaticizing fancifulness fanfaronades fantasticate fantasticoes fantasylands farsightedly farthingales fascicularly fasciculated fascinations fascioliases fascioliasis fashionables fastidiously fatherliness fathomlessly fatigability faultfinders faultfinding faultinesses fearlessness fearsomeness featherbrain featheredged featheredges featherheads featherlight fecklessness fecundations federalizing federatively feebleminded feeblenesses feistinesses felicitating felicitation felicitators felicitously fellmongered fellowshiped femalenesses feminineness femininities feminization femtoseconds fenestration fermentation fermentative ferricyanide ferrimagnets ferrocyanide ferromagnets ferrosilicon fertilizable fervidnesses festivalgoer festooneries fetoproteins feverishness fianchettoed fiberglassed fiberglasses fiberization fibreglasses fibrillating fibrillation fibrinolyses fibrinolysin fibrinolysis fibrinolytic fibroblastic fibronectins fibrosarcoma fibrositides fibrositises ficklenesses fictionalise fictionality fictionalize fictionizing fictitiously fiddlesticks fiendishness fiercenesses figuratively filibustered filibusterer filmsettings filthinesses fimbriations finalization fingerboards fingerpicked fingerprints finitenesses firecrackers firefighters fireproofing fissionables fitfulnesses flabbergasts flabbinesses flabelliform flaccidities flagellating flagellation flagitiously flamboyances flamboyantly flameproofed flameproofer flamethrower flammability flannelettes flashinesses flatteringly flatulencies flavoprotein flawlessness fleetingness fleshinesses flexographic flickeringly flimflammers flimflammery flimflamming flimsinesses flintinesses flocculating flocculation flocculators floodlighted floorwalkers floppinesses florescences floriculture floridnesses flowcharting fluctuations fluegelhorns fluffinesses fluidextract fluidization fluoresceins fluorescence fluorescents fluoridating fluoridation fluorimeters fluorimetric fluorinating fluorination fluorocarbon fluorochrome fluorography fluorometers fluorometric fluoroscoped fluoroscopes fluoroscopic fluorouracil fluphenazine flutterboard focalization folkloristic folksinesses folksingings folliculites folliculitis followership fomentations foodlessness foolhardiest footdraggers footfaulting footlamberts footlessness footsloggers footslogging footsoreness foraminifera foraminifers forbearances forbiddances forbiddingly forcefulness forcibleness forebodingly forecastable forecheckers forechecking foreclosures foregathered foregrounded forehandedly foremanships forensically foreordained forequarters forereaching foreshadowed foreshadower foreshortens foresightful forespeaking forestallers forestalling forestations forestaysail foreswearing forethoughts foretokening forgathering forgeability formaldehyde formalizable formalnesses formlessness formularized formularizer formularizes formulations fornications forthrightly fortresslike fortuitously foundational fountainhead fourdriniers fractionally fractionated fractionates fractionator fragmentally fragmentated fragmentates fragmentized fragmentizes frangibility frankfurters frankincense franklinites frankpledges fraternalism fraternities fraternizers fraternizing fraudulences fraudulently freakinesses freakishness freehandedly freestanding freethinkers freethinking freewheelers freewheeling freewritings frenchifying frenetically freneticisms frequentness friabilities fricasseeing frictionally frictionless friendliness frigidnesses friskinesses fritillarias fritillaries frizzinesses frontalities frontiersman frontiersmen frontispiece frontrunners frostbitings frostinesses frothinesses frozennesses fruitfullest fruitfulness fruitinesses frustrations fucoxanthins fugitiveness fulfillments fulgurations fuliginously fulminations funambulisms funambulists functionally functionless fundamentals fundraisings fungicidally furazolidone furtherances furunculoses furunculosis fusibilities fustigations futilenesses futilitarian futurologies futurologist gadzookeries galactorrhea galactosemia galactosemic galactosides gallbladders gallerygoers galligaskins gallinaceous gallinippers gallivanting galvanically galvanometer galvanoscope gamesmanship gamesomeness gametogenous gametophores gametophytes gametophytic gamopetalous ganglionated gangliosides gangsterdoms gangsterisms garishnesses garnisheeing garnishments gasification gastightness gastrocnemii gastronomies gastronomist gastroscopes gastroscopic gastrotrichs gastrulating gastrulation gauchenesses geanticlines gegenscheins gelatinizing gelatinously gemeinschaft gemmologists gendarmeries genealogical genealogists generalising generalities generalizers generalizing generalships generational generatrices generosities generousness gentlenesses gentleperson genuflecting genuflection geobotanical geobotanists geochemistry geographical geohydrology geologically geomagnetism geometrician geometrising geometrizing geophysicist geopolitical geopressured geoscientist geostrategic geosynclinal geosynclines geotechnical geothermally geriatrician germinations gerontocracy gerontocrats gerontologic gerrymanders gesellschaft gesticulated gesticulates gesticulator ghostwriters ghostwriting ghostwritten ghoulishness gibberellins giftednesses gigantically gillyflowers gingerbreads gingerbready gingerliness gingivectomy gingivitides gingivitises glaciologies glaciologist gladiatorial gladsomeness glamourizing glassblowers glassblowing glassinesses glassmakings glasspapered glassworkers glaucousness glioblastoma glitteringly globeflowers glockenspiel gloominesses gloriousness glossinesses glossolalias glossolalist glucokinases glucosamines glucosidases glucuronides glutaminases glutathiones glutethimide gluttonously glycerinated glycerinates glycogeneses glycogenesis glycopeptide glycoprotein glycosidases glycosylated glycosylates gnatcatchers goaltendings gobbledegook gobbledygook goddaughters godfathering goldbricking goldennesses gonadotropic gonadotropin goniometries googolplexes gooseberries goosefleshes goosegrasses gorgeousness gormandising gormandizers gormandizing gossipmonger gourmandises gourmandisms gourmandized gourmandizes governmental governorates governorship gracefullest gracefulness graciousness gradiometers graininesses granddaddies grandfathers grandiflorae grandifloras grandmasters grandmothers grandnephews grandparents grandstanded grandstander granitewares granodiorite granulations granulocytes granulocytic graphitizing graphologies graphologist graspingness grasshoppers gratefullest gratefulness gratifyingly gratuitously gratulations gravimetries gravitations greasepaints greaseproofs greasinesses greathearted grecianizing greedinesses greenbackers greenbackism greenfinches greengrocers greengrocery greenishness greenkeepers greenmailers greenmailing greenockites greenskeeper gregariously griddlecakes grievousness griseofulvin grislinesses grittinesses grogginesses grossularite grotesquerie groundbursts groundfishes groundlessly groundmasses groundsheets groundswells groundwaters groupuscules growlinesses grubbinesses gruesomeness grumpinesses guanethidine guaranteeing guardianship guesstimated guesstimates guilefulness guillotining guiltinesses guitarfishes gunslingings gunsmithings guttersnipes gutturalisms gymnosophist gynecocratic gynecologies gynecologist gynecomastia gyromagnetic haberdashers haberdashery habilitating habilitation habitability habitualness habituations hagiographer hagiographic hagiological hairbreadths haircuttings hairdressers hairdressing hairlessness hairsbreadth hairsplitter hairstylings hairstylists hallucinated hallucinates hallucinator hallucinogen hallucinoses hallucinosis halogenating halogenation haloperidols halterbreaks halterbroken hamantaschen hamstringing handbreadths handcrafting handednesses handfastings handholdings handicappers handicapping handicrafter handkerchief handrailings handsbreadth handsomeness handwringers handwringing handwritings handypersons happenchance happenstance haptoglobins harbingering harbormaster hardheadedly hardinggrass hardscrabble hardstanding harlequinade harmlessness harmonically harmonicists harmoniously harpsichords harquebusier harvesttimes hasenpfeffer hatchability headforemost headlessness headmistress headquarters headshrinker heartbreaker heartburning hearteningly hearthstones heartinesses heartrending heartstrings heartwarming heathenishly heathenizing heavenliness heavyhearted heavyweights hebdomadally hebephrenias hebephrenics hebetudinous hebraization hectographed hedgehoppers hedgehopping heedlessness heldentenors helicoptered heliocentric heliographed heliographic heliolatries heliolatrous heliotropism hellaciously hellgrammite helmsmanship helplessness hemangiomata hematogenous hematologies hematologist hematoxylins hemerocallis hemerythrins hemichordate hemihydrated hemihydrates hemimorphism hemodialyses hemodialysis hemodilution hemodynamics hemophiliacs hemoproteins hemorrhaging hemorrhoidal hemosiderins hemstitchers hemstitching henceforward henotheistic hepatomegaly heraldically herbicidally hereditament hereditarian hereditarily hereinbefore heritability hermeneutics hermetically hermeticisms heroicomical herringboned herringbones hesitatingly heteroauxins heterocercal heteroclites heterocycles heterocyclic heterodoxies heteroduplex heterodyning heteroecious heteroecisms heterogamete heterogamety heterogamies heterogamous heterogenies heterogenous heterogonies heterografts heterokaryon heterologous heteronomies heteronomous heterophylly heteroploids heteroploidy heterosexual heterotrophs heterotrophy heterozygote heterozygous hexadecimals hexahydrates hexaploidies hexobarbital hibernaculum hibernations hiddennesses hierarchical hierarchized hierarchizes hieratically hieroglyphic hierophantic highbrowisms highhandedly highlighters highlighting hindquarters hippienesses hippopotamus histaminases histogeneses histogenesis histogenetic histological histologists historically historicisms historicists historicized historicizes hoarsenesses hobblebushes hobbledehoys holidaymaker holistically hollandaises hollownesses holographers holographies holographing holophrastic holothurians homelessness homelinesses homeomorphic homeopathies homeothermic homeschooled homeschooler homesickness homesteaders homesteading hominization homogenising homogenizers homogenizing homoiotherms homoiousians homologating homologation homologizers homologizing homomorphism homonymously homopolymers homosexually homothallism homozygosity homozygously honeybunches honeycombing honeycreeper honeymooners honeymooning honeysuckles honorability hoodednesses hooliganisms hootenannies hopelessness hopscotching horizontally hornednesses hornlessness hornswoggled hornswoggles horrendously horribleness horridnesses horrifically horrifyingly horsefleshes horsemanship horseplayers horseshoeing horsewhipped horsewhipper horticulture hospitalised hospitalises hospitalized hospitalizes hotchpotches houseboaters housebreaker housecleaned housedresses housefathers householders househusband housekeepers housekeeping housemasters housemothers housepainter houseparents housepersons housesitting housewarming hucksterisms humanenesses humanitarian humanization humblenesses humbuggeries humification humiliations hummingbirds humorousness hungrinesses hydralazines hydrobiology hydrocarbons hydrocephaly hydrocolloid hydrocracked hydrocracker hydrodynamic hydrogenases hydrogenated hydrogenates hydrographer hydrographic hydrokinetic hydrological hydrologists hydrolysates hydrolyzable hydrolyzates hydromancies hydromedusae hydrometeors hydromorphic hydronically hydropathies hydrophobias hydroplaning hydroquinone hydrospheres hydrospheric hydrostatics hydrotherapy hydrothermal hydrotropism hydroxylases hydroxylated hydroxylates hydroxyureas hydroxyzines hygienically hygrophilous hymenopteran hymenopteron hyoscyamines hypabyssally hyperacidity hyperactives hyperarousal hyperbolical hyperbolists hyperbolized hyperbolizes hyperboloids hyperboreans hypercapnias hypercharged hypercharges hypercomplex hypercorrect hypercritics hyperendemic hyperexcited hyperextends hyperintense hyperkineses hyperkinesia hyperkinesis hyperkinetic hyperlipemia hyperlipemic hypermarkets hypermnesias hypermutable hyperostoses hyperostosis hyperostotic hyperphagias hyperplasias hyperplastic hyperpyrexia hyperreactor hyperrealism hyperrealist hypersthenes hypersthenic hypersurface hypertension hypertensive hyperthermia hyperthermic hyperthyroid hypertrophic hypertypical hyphenations hypnotherapy hypnotically hypnotizable hypocalcemia hypocalcemic hypochlorite hypochondria hypocoristic hypocritical hypocycloids hypodermises hypodiploidy hypoglossals hypoglycemia hypoglycemic hypokalemias hypolimnions hypostatized hypostatizes hypotensions hypotensives hypothalamic hypothalamus hypothecated hypothecates hypothecator hypothenuses hypothermias hypothesized hypothesizes hypothetical hypotonicity hypoxanthine hysterectomy hysterically ichthyofauna ichthyosaurs iconoclastic iconographer iconographic iconolatries iconological icosahedrons idealization ideationally identifiable identifiably ideographies ideologizing idiosyncrasy idolatrously idolizations ignitability ignobilities ignorantness illegalities illegalizing illegibility illegitimacy illegitimate illiberalism illiberality illiteracies illiterately illogicality illuminances illuminating illumination illuminative illuminators illusionisms illusionists illusiveness illusoriness illustrating illustration illustrative illustrators illuviations imaginations imbecilities imbibitional imbrications immaculacies immaculately immanentisms immanentists immaturities immeasurable immeasurably immemorially immensurable immethodical immigrations immobilities immobilizers immobilizing immoderacies immoderately immoderation immoralities immortalised immortalises immortalized immortalizer immortalizes immovability immunization immunoassays immunologies immunologist immutability imparadising impartations impartiality impassioning impeachments impenetrable impenetrably impenitences impenitently imperatively imperatorial imperceptive impercipient imperfection imperfective imperialisms imperialists imperilments imperishable imperishably impermanence impermanency impersonally impersonated impersonates impersonator impertinence impertinency imperviously impetiginous impetrations impingements impishnesses implantation implementers implementing implementors implications implicitness impoliteness imponderable imponderably importancies importations impoundments impoverished impoverisher impoverishes imprecations imprecisions impregnating impregnation impregnators impressively impressments imprisonment improperness improvements improvidence improvisator impudicities impuissances impurenesses imputability imputatively inaccessible inaccessibly inaccuracies inaccurately inactivating inactivation inactivities inadequacies inadequately inadmissible inadmissibly inadvertence inadvertency inapparently inappeasable inappetences inapplicable inapplicably inappositely inarticulacy inarticulate inattentions inaudibility inaugurating inauguration inaugurators inauspicious incalculable incalculably incalescence incandescent incandescing incantations incapability incapacitate incapacities incarcerated incarcerates incarnadined incarnadines incarnations incautiously incendiaries incendiarism incertitudes incessancies incestuously inchoateness inchoatively incidentally incinerating incineration incinerators incipiencies incisiveness incivilities inclemencies inclinations inclinometer incognizance incoherences incoherently incommodious incommutable incommutably incomparable incomparably incompatible incompatibly incompetence incompetency incompetents incompletely incomputable incomputably inconcinnity inconclusive inconformity incongruence inconsequent inconsistent inconsolable inconsolably inconsonance inconstantly inconsumable inconsumably incontinence incontinency inconvenient incorporable incorporated incorporates incorporator incorporeity incorrigible incorrigibly incorruption increasingly incrementing incriminated incriminates incrustation inculcations inculpations incumbencies incurvations incurvatures indebtedness indecisively indeclinable indecorously indefeasible indefeasibly indefectible indefectibly indefensible indefensibly indefinables indefinitely indehiscence indelibility indelicacies indelicately indemnifiers indemnifying indentations independence independency independents indicational indicatively indifference indifferency indigenizing indigenously indigestible indigestions indignations indirections indirectness indiscipline indiscreetly indiscretion indisputable indisputably indissoluble indissolubly indistinctly individually individuated individuates indivisibles indocilities indoctrinate indomethacin indorsements inducibility industrially inebriations ineffability ineffaceable ineffaceably inefficacies inefficiency inefficients inelasticity ineloquently inequalities inequivalved ineradicable ineradicably inessentials inexactitude inexistences inexpedience inexpediency inexperience inexpertness inexplicable inexplicably inexpressive inexpugnable inexpugnably inexpungible inextricable inextricably infanticidal infanticides infantilisms infantilized infantilizes infatuations infectiously infelicities infelicitous infestations infibulating infibulation infidelities infiltrating infiltration infiltrative infiltrators infiniteness infinitively inflammables inflammation inflammatory inflationary inflationism inflationist inflectional influentials infomercials informations infotainment infrequences infrequently infringement infundibular infundibulum infuriations infusibility ingatherings ingloriously ingratiating ingratiation ingratiatory ingratitudes ingurgitated ingurgitates inhabitation inhalational inharmonious inheritances inheritrices inheritrixes inhospitable inhospitably inhumanities iniquitously initializing innatenesses innervations innovational innovatively innumeracies inobservance inoculations inoperculate inordinately inosculating inosculation inquisitions insalubrious insanenesses insanitation inscriptions insecticidal insecticides insectivores insecureness insecurities inseminating insemination inseminators insentiences inseparables insightfully insinuations insipidities insistencies insobrieties insolubility insolubilize insolvencies insouciances insouciantly inspectorate inspirations inspissating inspissation inspissators installation installments instantiated instantiates instauration instigations instillation instillments institutions instructions instructress instrumental instrumented insufferable insufferably insufficient insufflating insufflation insufflators insularities insurability insurgencies insurrection intactnesses integrations intellection intellective intellectual intelligence intelligible intelligibly intemperance intenerating inteneration intensifiers intensifying intentnesses interactants interactions interallelic interbedding interborough intercalated intercalates intercepters intercepting interception interceptors intercession intercessors intercessory interchained interchanged interchanger interchanges interchannel intercluster intercoastal intercompany intercompare interconnect interconvert intercoolers intercostals intercountry intercourses intercropped intercrossed intercrosses interculture intercurrent intercutting interdealers interdepends interdicting interdiction interdictive interdictors interdictory interdiffuse interestedly interfacings interfaculty interference interfertile interfluvial interfolding interfusions intergeneric interglacial intergrading intergrafted intergrowths interinvolve interiorised interiorises interiorized interiorizes interjecting interjection interjectors interjectory interknitted interlaminar interlapping interlarding interlayered interleaving interlending interleukins interlibrary interlinears interlinings interlinking interlobular interlocking interlocutor intermarried intermarries intermeddled intermeddler intermeddles intermediacy intermediary intermediate intermeshing interminable interminably intermingled intermingles intermission intermitotic intermittent intermitters intermitting intermixture intermontane internalised internalises internalized internalizes interneurons internuclear internucleon internuncial internuncios interoceanic interoceptor interorbital interpellate interplanted interplaying interpleaded interpleader interpluvial interpolated interpolates interpolator interpreters interpreting interpretive interpsychic interregnums interrelated interrelates interrobangs interrogated interrogatee interrogates interrogator interrupters interrupting interruption interruptive interruptors interschools intersecting intersection intersegment intersensory interservice intersession intersociety interspacing interspecies interspersed intersperses interstadial interstation interstellar intersterile interstimuli interstitial interstrains interstrands intertidally intertillage intertilling intertwining intertwisted intervalleys intervention interviewees interviewers interviewing intervillage intervisible intervocalic interweaving interworking interwrought intestinally intimateness intimidating intimidation intimidators intimidatory intolerances intolerantly intonational intoxicating intoxication intracardiac intracardial intracompany intracranial intramurally intranasally intransigent intransitive intrapreneur intrapsychic intraspecies intrauterine intravitally intrepidness intriguingly introduction introductory introjecting introjection intromission intromittent intromitters intromitting introspected introversion introversive introverting intuitionism intuitionist intumescence intussuscept invaginating invagination invalidating invalidation invalidators invalidities invasiveness inveiglement inventorying inventresses invertebrate investigated investigates investigator investitures inveteracies inveterately invigilating invigilation invigilators invigorating invigoration invigorators invisibility invitational invitatories invocational involutional involvements invulnerable invulnerably inwardnesses ipecacuanhas irascibility iridescences iridescently iridologists ironicalness irradiations irrationally irredeemable irredeemably irredentisms irredentists irreformable irrefragable irrefragably irregardless irregularity irrelatively irrelevances irrelevantly irremediable irremediably irrepealable irresistible irresistibly irresolutely irresolution irresolvable irrespective irresponsive irreverences irreverently irreversible irreversibly irritability irritatingly irrotational isoantigenic isobutylenes isochronally isochronisms isodiametric isoenzymatic isolationism isolationist isomorphisms isoprenaline isothermally isotonically isotopically italianating italianising italianizing itemizations itinerancies itinerations jackanapeses jackasseries jackhammered jactitations jaggednesses japonaiserie jauntinesses jejunenesses jeopardising jeopardizing jesuitically jettisonable jitterbugged jocosenesses jocularities johnsongrass journalistic journalizers journalizing journeyworks joyfulnesses joyousnesses judgmentally judicatories jurisconsult jurisdiction jurisprudent juristically juvenescence juvenilities kaleidoscope karyokineses karyokinesis karyokinetic karyological katzenjammer keratinizing keratoplasty keratotomies ketosteroids keyboardists kilocalories kindergarten kindlinesses kinesthesias kinetochores kinetoplasts kinetoscopes kinglinesses kinnikinnick kitchenettes kitchenwares kleptomaniac kleptomanias klutzinesses kneecappings knightliness knottinesses knuckleballs knucklebones knuckleheads kremlinology kwashiorkors kymographies labanotation labiodentals laboratories labradorites labyrinthian labyrinthine lachrymators lachrymosely lachrymosity laciniations lacquerwares lacquerworks lacrimations lactalbumins lactobacilli laicizations lallygagging lamellicorns lamentations lammergeiers lammergeyers lamplighters lampooneries landholdings landlessness landlordisms landlubberly landscapists langbeinites langoustines languishment languorously laparoscopes laparoscopic laparotomies largehearted laryngectomy laryngitides laryngitises laryngoscope laryngoscopy lasciviously latchstrings lateralizing laterization latinization latticeworks laudableness launderettes laureateship lavishnesses lawbreakings lawfulnesses leachability leadennesses leapfrogging leaseholders leatherbacks leatherettes leathernecks leatherwoods lecithinases lectionaries lectureships legalization legerdemains legibilities legionnaires legislations legislatives legislatures legitimacies legitimately legitimating legitimation legitimatize legitimators legitimising legitimizers legitimizing lemongrasses lentiviruses leopardesses lepidopteran leprosariums leptocephali letterboxing letterspaces leukemogenic leukocytoses leukocytosis leukoplakias leukopoieses leukopoiesis leukopoietic leukotrienes levitational levorotatory lexicalities lexicalizing lexicography lexicologies lexicologist liberalising liberalistic liberalities liberalizers liberalizing libertarians libertinages libertinisms libidinously licentiously lickspittles lifeguarding lifelessness lifelikeness lifemanships lighthearted lightweights likabilities lilliputians limbernesses limelighting limitational limnological limnologists limpidnesses linebackings linebreeding linecastings linguistical lionizations lipoproteins liposuctions liquefaction liquidambars liquidations liquidnesses listenership listlessness literalistic literalities literalizing literariness literateness lithographed lithographer lithographic lithological lithospheres lithospheric lithotripter lithotriptor litterateurs littlenesses liturgically liturgiology livabilities livelinesses liverishness livetrapping livingnesses lixiviations lobotomising lobotomizing localization locationally locksmithing lockstitched lockstitches loganberries logicalities logistically logisticians lognormality lollapalooza lollygagging lonelinesses lonesomeness longitudinal longshoreman longshoremen longshorings longsomeness loosestrifes lopsidedness loquaciously lordlinesses loudspeakers lovabilities lovelessness lovelinesses lovelornness lovesickness lovingnesses lubberliness lubrications lubriciously lucubrations luftmenschen lugubriously lukewarmness luminescence luminiferous luminosities luminousness lumpectomies luncheonette lusciousness lustrousness luteotrophic luteotrophin luteotropins lycanthropes lycanthropic lymphoblasts lymphography lymphomatous lyophilising lyophilizers lyophilizing lysogenicity lysogenising lysogenizing lysolecithin macadamizing machicolated machinations mackintoshes macrocytoses macrocytosis macrofossils macrogametes macronuclear macronucleus macropterous mademoiselle madreporians madreporites madrigalists magisteriums magistracies magistrature magnetically magnetizable magnetograph magnetometer magnetometry magnetopause magnifically magnificence magniloquent maidenliness maidservants mainstreamed maintainable maintenances majestically majoritarian malacologies malacologist maladjustive malapertness malapropisms malapropists malcontented maledictions malefactions maleficences malevolences malevolently malfeasances malformation malfunctions malignancies malleability malnourished malnutrition malocclusion malodorously malpositions malpractices maltreatment malversation mammalogists mammographic managemental manageresses managerially managerships mandarinates mandarinisms mandolinists maneuverable manfulnesses manifestants manifestoing manifoldness manipulating manipulation manipulative manipulators manipulatory mannerliness manorialisms manslaughter mantelpieces manufactured manufacturer manufactures manumissions maquiladoras marathonings marginalized marginalizes marginations margraviates maricultures markednesses marketplaces marksmanship marlinespike marlinspikes marquessates marqueteries marquisettes marriageable marshalships marshinesses marshmallows marshmallowy masculinised masculinises masculinized masculinizes masqueraders masquerading mastectomies masterliness masterminded masterpieces mastersinger masterstroke mastications masturbating masturbation masturbators masturbatory matchmakings materialised materialises materialisms materialists materialized materializer materializes materialness maternalisms mathematical mathematized mathematizes matriarchate matriarchies matriculants matriculated matriculates maturational maximization meadowsweets meagernesses mealymouthed meaningfully measurements meatpackings mecamylamine mechanically mechanicians mechanizable medievalisms medievalists mediocrities meditatively meetinghouse megaloblasts megalomaniac megalomanias megaprojects megatonnages megavitamins melancholiac melancholias melancholics melancholies melanization melanoblasts melanophores meliorations mellownesses melodramatic membranously memorability memorialised memorialises memorialists memorialized memorializes memorization mendaciously mendeleviums mendicancies meningiomata meningitides meningococci menorrhagias menstruating menstruation mensurations meprobamates mercantilism mercantilist merchandised merchandiser merchandises merchandized merchandizes merchantable mercifulness mercurations meretricious meridionally meristematic meristically meritocratic merrymakings merrythought mesalliances mesencephala meshuggeners mesmerically mesocyclones mesomorphies mesophyllous mesothelioma mesothoraces mesothoracic mesothoraxes messeigneurs messiahships metabolizing metacentrics metacercaria metafictions metagalactic metagalaxies metalanguage metallically metallophone metallurgies metallurgist metalworkers metalworking metamorphism metamorphose metaphorical metaphysical metasequoias metasomatism metastasized metastasizes metathetical metathoraces metathoracic metathoraxes metencephala meteorically meteoritical meteorologic methacrylate methanations methaqualone methenamines methicillins methodically methotrexate methoxychlor methylamines methylations methysergide meticulosity meticulously metrications metrological metrologists metronomical metropolises metropolitan metrorrhagia microamperes microanalyst microanatomy microbalance microbiology microbrewers microbrewery microbrewing microcapsule microcephaly microcircuit microclimate microcrystal microculture microelement microfibrils microfilaria microfilmers microfilming microfossils microgametes micrographed micrographic microgravity microgrooves microhabitat microinjects micromanaged micromanager micromanages micromethods micronucleus microphonics microphysics micropipette microprogram microreaders microscopies microscopist microseconds microseismic microspheres microsporous microsurgery microtechnic microtonally microtubular microtubules microvillous microwavable micturitions middleweight midlatitudes mightinesses militantness militarising militaristic militarizing millenarians millesimally milliamperes millidegrees millihenries millilambert millimicrons millionaires milliradians milliseconds milquetoasts mimeographed mindednesses mindlessness mineralising mineralizers mineralizing mineralogies mineralogist minesweepers minesweeping miniaturists miniaturized miniaturizes minicomputer minimization ministration minnesingers minstrelsies minutenesses miraculously mirthfulness misaddressed misaddresses misadjusting misadventure misalignment misalliances misallocated misallocates misanthropes misanthropic misappraisal misapprehend misassembled misassembles misattribute misbalancing misbeginning misbehaviors misbelievers misbelieving misbuttoning miscalculate miscaptioned miscarriages miscataloged miscellanies miscellanist mischanneled miscitations miscomputing misconceived misconceiver misconceives misconducted misconnected misconstrued misconstrues miscreations misdemeanant misdemeanors misdescribed misdescribes misdeveloped misdiagnosed misdiagnoses misdiagnosis misdirecting misdirection misdivisions miseducating miseducation misemphasize misemploying misenrolling misericordes misesteeming misestimated misestimates misevaluated misevaluates misfeasances misfocussing misfunctions misgoverning misguidances misinferring misinforming misinterpret misinterring misjudgments misknowledge mislabelling misleadingly mislocations mismarriages misogynistic misorienting mispackaging misperceived misperceives misplacement mispositions misprogramed mispronounce misquotation misreckoning misrecording misreference misreferring misregisters misremembers misrendering misreporting misrepresent missiologies missionaries missionizers missionizing misspellings misstatement mistranslate mistreatment mitochondria mitogenicity mnemonically mobilization mockingbirds moderateness modernnesses modification modishnesses modulability modularities moisturising moisturizers moisturizing molestations molluscicide mollycoddled mollycoddler mollycoddles molybdenites monadelphous monastically monasticisms monetization moneylenders moneymakings mongrelizing monitorships monkeyshines monochromats monochromist monocrystals monocultural monocultures monodisperse monodramatic monofilament monogamously monogrammers monogramming monographing monolinguals monologuists monomaniacal monometallic monomorphism mononuclears mononucleate monophthongs monophyletic monopodially monopolising monopolistic monopolizers monopolizing monorchidism monospecific monosyllabic monosyllable monosynaptic monoterpenes monotheistic monotonicity monotonously monsignorial monumentally moonlighters moonlighting moralization morbidnesses morosenesses morphallaxes morphallaxis morphologies morphologist morphometric mortarboards motherboards motherhouses motherliness mothproofers mothproofing motionlessly motivational motivelessly motoneuronal motorboaters motorboating motorcycling motorcyclist motorization mountaineers mountainside mountaintops mountebanked mournfullest mournfulness mousetrapped mouthbreeder movabilities movelessness moviemakings mucilaginous mucopeptides mucoproteins muddleheaded mudslingings muliebrities mulishnesses mulligatawny multibillion multichannel multicolored multicourses multielement multiengines multifaceted multifarious multiformity multilateral multilayered multileveled multilingual multimegaton multimillion multinomials multinuclear multipartite multipicture multiplexers multiplexing multiplexors multiplicand multiplicity multiproblem multiproduct multipronged multipurpose multisensory multiservice multiskilled multispecies multistemmed multistoried multitasking multitowered multitracked multivalence multivalents multivariate multiversity multivitamin multivoltine multiwarhead municipality municipalize munificences munificently musculatures museological museologists musicalising musicalities musicalizing musicianship musicologies musicologist mutabilities mutagenicity mutationally mutinousness muttonfishes mycetomatous mycobacteria mycophagists mycoplasmata myeloblastic myelopathies myofibrillar myofilaments myoinositols myrmecophile mysteriously mystifyingly mythographer mythological mythologists mythologized mythologizer mythologizes mythomaniacs myxedematous namelessness naphthalenes naprapathies narcissistic narcolepsies narcoleptics narcotically narrownesses nasalization nationalised nationalises nationalisms nationalists nationalized nationalizer nationalizes nativenesses natriuretics naturalising naturalistic naturalizing naturopathic nauseatingly nauseousness navigability navigational nazification nebulization nebulosities nebulousness necessitated necessitates neckerchiefs necrological necrologists necromancers necromancies necrophagous necrophiliac necrophilias necrophilism necropolises needlefishes needlepoints needlessness needleworker negativeness negativistic negativities neglectfully negotiations negrophobias neighborhood neighbouring nematologies nematologist neoclassical neoorthodoxy neorealistic neostigmines nephelinites nephelinitic nephelometer nephelometry nephrologies nephrologist nephropathic nephrostomes netherworlds neurasthenia neurasthenic neuroanatomy neurobiology neurochemist neurofibrils neurofibroma neurohormone neurohumoral neuroleptics neurological neurologists neuropathies neuropeptide neuropterans neuropterous neuroscience neurosensory neurosurgeon neurosurgery neurotically neuroticisms neurulations neutralising neutralistic neutralities neutralizers neutralizing neutrinoless neutrophilic nevertheless newsmagazine newspapering newspaperman newspapermen newsweeklies newswritings niacinamides nickelodeons nicotinamide nidification nightclothes nightclubbed nightclubber nightdresses nightingales nightwalkers nimblenesses nimbostratus ninnyhammers nitrobenzene nitrogenases nitromethane nitrosamines noctambulist noisemakings nomenclators nomenclature nominalistic nomographies nonabsorbent nonacademics nonactivated nonaddictive nonadiabatic nonadmission nonaesthetic nonagenarian nonalcoholic nonalignment nonambiguous nonantigenic nonarbitrary nonarchitect nonarguments nonassertive nonattenders nonautomated nonautomatic nonbacterial nonbelievers nonbiologist nonbotanists nonbreakable nonbreathing nonbreedings nonbroadcast nonbuildings noncancerous noncandidacy noncandidate noncelebrity noncertified nonchalances nonchalantly noncharacter nonchemicals nonclassical nonclassroom nonclericals noncognitive noncollector noncollinear noncolorfast noncombatant noncombative noncommittal noncommitted noncommunist noncommunity noncompliant noncomplying noncomposers noncompounds nonconcurred nonconductor nonconformed nonconformer noncongruent nonconscious nonconstants nonconsumers nonconsuming noncorporate noncorroding noncorrosive noncountries noncoverages noncriminals noncrossover noncrushable noncustodial noncustomers nondeceptive nondecisions nondeductive nondeforming nondelegates nondemanding nondependent nondepleting nondepressed nondescripts nondiabetics nondirective nondisableds nondomestics nondominants noneconomist noneditorial noneducation noneffective nonelections nonelectives nonelectrics nonemergency nonemotional nonempirical nonemployees nonenzymatic nonessential nonevidences nonexclusive nonexecutive nonexistence nonexplosive nonfattening nonfeasances nonfederated nonfeminists nonfictional nonfinancial nonflammable nonflowering nonfluencies nonfrivolous nonglamorous nongraduates nonhappening nonhazardous nonhemolytic nonhospitals nonidentical nonimitative nonimmigrant noninclusion nonincumbent noninductive noninfective noninfluence noninitiates noninsurance noninterests nonintrusive nonintuitive nonirrigated nonlandowner nonlanguages nonlibrarian nonlibraries nonlinearity nonliterates nonmalignant nonmalleable nonmercurial nonmetameric nonmicrobial nonmigratory nonmilitants nonmolecular nonmotorized nonmunicipal nonmusicians nonnarrative nonnationals nonnecessity nonnegligent nonnormative nonnucleated nonnumerical nonnutritive nonobjective nonobservant nonoperating nonoperative nonoxidizing nonparallels nonparasitic nonpartisans nonpasserine nonperformer nonpetroleum nonphosphate nonphysician nonpoisonous nonpolitical nonpolluting nonpractical nonproducing nonpsychotic nonpurposive nonrealistic nonrecurrent nonrecurring nonredundant nonregulated nonrelatives nonreligious nonrenewable nonrepayable nonresidence nonresidency nonresidents nonresistant nonresponder nonresponses nonreusables nonruminants nonscheduled nonscientist nonsecretors nonsecretory nonsectarian nonselective nonsensitive nonsentences nonsocialist nonsolutions nonspherical nonsteroidal nonstrategic nonsuccesses nonsymmetric nontechnical nontemporals nonthinkings nontreatment nonturbulent nonunanimous nonunionized nonuniversal nonutilities nonvanishing nonviolences nonviolently nonvoluntary nonyellowing noradrenalin normalizable normotensive normothermia normothermic northeastern northeasters northernmost northwestern northwesters notabilities notarization noteworthily notification nourishments novelization nucleocapsid nucleophiles nucleophilic nucleoplasms nucleotidase numerologies numerologist numerousness numinousness numismatists nuptialities nutritionist nutritiously nympholeptic nymphomaniac nymphomanias oafishnesses oarsmanships obdurateness obfuscations objectifying objectivisms objectivists objurgations oblanceolate oblatenesses obligatorily obligingness obliterating obliteration obliterative obliterators obnubilating obnubilation obscurantism obscurantist obscurations obsequiously observations obsolescence obsoleteness obstetrician obstreperous obstructions obstructives obtusenesses occasionally occidentally occultations occupational oceanography oceanologies oceanologist ochlocracies octahedrally octapeptides octogenarian octosyllabic octosyllable odiousnesses odontoblasts officeholder officialdoms officialeses officialisms officiations offishnesses offscourings oleaginously oleandomycin oleoresinous olfactometer oligarchical oligochaetes oligophagies oligophagous oligopsonies oligotrophic omnipotences omnipotently omnipresence omnisciences omnisciently omnivorously oncogenicity oncornavirus onomastician onomatopoeia onomatopoeic onychophoran oophorectomy opalescences opalescently opaquenesses openhandedly operatically operationism operationist operatorless opinionative opportunisms opportunists opposability oppositeness oppositional oppressively optimalities optimisation optimization optometrists oratorically orchestrally orchestrated orchestrater orchestrates orchestrator orchidaceous ordinariness organicities organisation organization organoleptic organologies orientalisms orientalists orientalized orientalizes orientations orienteering originations orismologies ornamentally ornatenesses ornerinesses ornithologic ornithopters orographical oropharynges oropharynxes orotundities orthocenters orthodontias orthodontics orthodontist orthogeneses orthogenesis orthogenetic orthogonally orthographic orthopaedics orthopedists orthopterans orthopterist orthopteroid orthorhombic orthotropous oscillations oscillograms oscillograph oscilloscope osmolalities osmolarities ossification ostentations ostentatious osteoblastic osteoclastic osteogeneses osteogenesis osteological osteologists osteomalacia osteopathies osteoplastic osteoporoses osteoporosis osteoporotic osteosarcoma ostracoderms otherworldly otiosenesses otoscleroses otosclerosis outachieving outbalancing outbargained outbreedings outbuildings outcavilling outcompeting outcroppings outdatedness outdelivered outdesigning outdistanced outdistances outgeneraled outglittered outgoingness outintrigued outintrigues outlandishly outmaneuvers outnumbering outorganized outorganizes outperformed outplacement outpoliticks outpopulated outpopulates outpreaching outproducing outpromising outrageously outrebounded outreproduce outrivalling outsiderness outsourcings outsparkling outspreading outsprinting outstretched outstretches outstripping outthrobbing outthrusting outwrestling ovariotomies overabstract overabundant overachieved overachiever overachieves overactivity overanalyses overanalysis overanalyzed overanalyzes overarousals overarranged overarranges overasserted overbalanced overbalances overbleached overbleaches overborrowed overbrowsing overbuilding overburdened overcapacity overcastings overcautions overcautious overcharging overchilling overclaiming overclassify overcleaning overclearing overclouding overcoaching overcompress overconcerns overconsumed overconsumes overcontrols overcorrects overcounting overcramming overcritical overcropping overcrowding overdecorate overdesigned overdevelops overdirected overdiscount overdocument overdominant overdramatic overdressing overdrinking overeducated overeducates overemphases overemphasis overemphatic overenamored overengineer overenrolled overequipped overestimate overexciting overexercise overexerting overexertion overexpanded overexplains overexplicit overexploits overexposing overexposure overextended overfamiliar overfatigued overfatigues overfavoring overfocusing overfocussed overfocusses overfulfills overgarments overgenerous overgoverned overhandling overharvests overhuntings overidealize overidentify overindulged overindulges overinflated overinflates overinformed overinsuring overissuance overlaboring overlearning overlengthen overlighting overliterary overlordship overmanaging overmannered overmastered overmatching overmaturity overmedicate overmodestly overnighters overnighting overoperated overoperates overoptimism overoptimist overorganize overornament overpackaged overpackages overpayments overpedaling overpedalled overpeopling overpersuade overplanning overplanting overplotting overpopulate overpowering overpraising overpressure overprinting overproduced overproduces overprograms overpromised overpromises overpromoted overpromotes overprotects overreachers overreaching overreacting overreaction overregulate overreliance overreported overresponds oversanguine oversaturate overserviced overservices overshadowed overshooting oversimplify overslaughed oversleeping overslipping overspenders overspending overstaffing overstepping overstirring overstocking overstrained overstressed overstresses overstrewing overstridden overstriding overstriking overstuffing oversupplied oversupplies oversweetens overswinging overtaxation overthinking overthrowing overtightens overtraining overtreating overtrimming overtrumping overutilized overutilizes overvoltages overwatering overweighing overweighted overwhelming overwintered overwithheld overwithhold ovipositions owlishnesses oxalacetates oxaloacetate oxyacetylene oxygenations ozonizations ozonospheres pachysandras pacification pacificators packinghouse paddleboards paddlefishes paedogeneses paedogenesis paedogenetic paedomorphic painlessness painstakings paintbrushes palatability palatalizing palatialness paleobiology paleobotanic paleoecology paleographer paleographic paleontology paleozoology palindromist palingeneses palingenesis palingenetic palliatively pallidnesses palpitations paltrinesses palynologies palynologist pamphleteers panchromatic pancreatitis pancreozymin pancytopenia pandemoniums pansexuality pantechnicon pantisocracy pantographic pantomimists pantothenate paperhangers paperhanging paperinesses papermakings paperweights papyrologies papyrologist paraboloidal parachutists paradigmatic paradisaical paradisiacal paradropping paraesthesia paragraphers paragraphing paralanguage paraldehydes parallelisms parallelling paralyzation paralyzingly paramagnetic paramedicals parameterize parametrized parametrizes paramilitary paranoically paranormally paraphrasers paraphrasing paraphrastic parasailings parasiticide parasitising parasitizing parasitology paratactical parathormone parathyroids paratroopers paratyphoids parenchymata parenterally parenthesize paresthesias parfocalized parfocalizes parishioners parkinsonian parkinsonism parochialism paronomasias paronomastic parsimonious partialities participants participated participates participator particularly particulates partisanship partitioners partitioning partitionist partnerships parturitions parvoviruses pasqueflower pasquinading passacaglias passageworks passionately passivations pasteurising pasteurizers pasteurizing pastoralisms pastoralists pastoralness pasturelands patchinesses paternalisms paternalists paternosters pathbreaking pathetically pathfindings pathlessness pathobiology pathogeneses pathogenesis pathogenetic pathological pathologists patriarchate patriarchies pawnbrokings peacefullest peacefulness peacekeepers peacekeeping peacemakings peakednesses pearlescence peccadilloes pectinaceous pectinations pedantically pedestalling pediatrician pedunculated pejoratively pelargoniums penalization penetrations penetrometer penitentiary pennycresses pennyweights pennywhistle pensionaries pentagonally pentahedrons pentamidines pentapeptide pentathletes pentazocines pentlandites peradventure perambulated perambulates perambulator perceptional perceptively perceptivity perceptually perchlorates percipiences percipiently percolations percussively percutaneous peregrinated peregrinates peremptorily perennations perestroikas perfectively perfectivity perfidiously perforations performances performative performatory perfusionist pericarditis perichondral perichondria perilousness periodically periodontics periodontist perionychium peripatetics peripherally periphrastic peritoneally peritrichous perjuriously permanencies permanganate permeability permissively permittivity permutations perniciously perorational perpetrating perpetration perpetrators perpetuating perpetuation perpetuators perpetuities perphenazine perplexities persecutions perseverance perseverated perseverates persistences persistently personalised personalises personalisms personalists personalized personalizes personalties personations personifiers personifying perspectival perspectives perspicacity perspiration perspiratory persuasively pertinacious pertinencies perturbation perverseness perversities perviousness pestilential petitenesses petrifaction petrodollars petrogeneses petrogenesis petrogenetic petrographer petrographic petrological petrologists pettifoggers pettifoggery pettifogging phagocytized phagocytizes phagocytosed phagocytoses phagocytosis phagocytotic phanerophyte pharmacology pharmacopeia phenanthrene pheneticists phenocrystic phenological phenomenally phenotypical phentolamine philadelphus philanderers philandering philanthropy philatelists philharmonic philhellenes philhellenic philistinism phillumenist philodendron philological philologists philosophers philosophies philosophise philosophize phlebography phlebologies phlebotomies phlebotomist phonemically phonemicists phonetically phoneticians phonogrammic phonographer phonographic phonological phonologists phonotactics phosphatases phosphatides phosphatidic phosphatidyl phosphatized phosphatizes phosphaturia phospholipid phosphoniums phosphoresce phosphorites phosphoritic phosphoruses photobiology photocathode photochemist photochromic photocompose photocopiers photocopying photocurrent photodynamic photoengrave photoexcited photoflashes photogeology photographed photographer photographic photogravure photoinduced photoionized photoionizes photokineses photokinesis photokinetic photolyzable photomapping photometries photomontage photomosaics photonuclear photooxidize photoperiods photophobias photopolymer photoproduct photoreduced photoreduces photoresists photosetters photosetting photospheres photospheric photostating photostatted photosystems phototropism photovoltaic phragmoplast phrasemakers phrasemaking phrasemonger phreatophyte phrenologies phrenologist phycocyanins phycological phycologists phycomycetes phylacteries phyletically phylloclades phyllotactic phyllotaxies phylogenetic physiatrists physicalisms physicalists physicalness physiocratic physiognomic physiography physiologies physiologist phytoalexins phytochemist phytochromes phytohormone phytophagous phytosterols pickabacking pickaninnies pickerelweed picornavirus pictographic pictorialism pictorialist pictorialize picturephone pieceworkers pigeonholers pigeonholing piggybacking pigmentation pilgrimaging pilocarpines pinealectomy piroplasmata pisciculture pitchblendes pitchforking pitiableness pitilessness pittosporums placeholders placekickers placekicking placentation placidnesses plagiarising plagiaristic plagiarizers plagiarizing plagioclases plagiotropic plainclothes planetariums planetesimal planispheres planispheric planlessness planographic plantigrades plasmalemmas plasminogens plasmodesmas plasmogamies plasmolyzing plasterboard plasterworks plasticities plasticizers plasticizing plastocyanin platemakings platitudinal platonically platyrrhines plausibility playwritings pleasantness pleasantries pleasingness pleasureless plebeianisms plebiscitary plecopterans pleinairisms pleinairists pleiotropies pleochroisms pleomorphism plerocercoid pliabilities pliantnesses plotlessness pluckinesses plushinesses plutocracies pneumaticity pneumatology pneumococcal pneumococcus pneumographs pneumothorax pocketknives podophyllins podophyllums poeticalness pogonophoran poikilotherm pointillisms pointillists pointtillist polarimeters polarimetric polariscopes polariscopic polarization polarography polemicizing policyholder polioviruses politenesses politicalize politicising politicizing pollenosises pollinations pollinosises poltergeists polyalcohols polyanthuses polycentrism polychromies polychroming polycrystals polycythemia polycythemic polydisperse polyembryony polyethylene polygamizing polyglotisms polyglottism polygraphers polygraphist polyhedroses polyhedrosis polyhistoric polymerising polymerizing polymorphism polymorphous polyneuritis polypeptides polypeptidic polypetalous polyphenolic polyphyletic polyploidies polyrhythmic polyribosome polysorbates polystichous polystyrenes polysulfides polysyllabic polysyllable polysynaptic polysyndeton polytechnics polytheistic polytonality polyurethane polyvalences pomegranates pontifically pontificated pontificates pontificator popularising popularities popularizers popularizing populational populousness porcelainize porcelaneous pornographer pornographic porousnesses porphyropsin portcullises portentously porterhouses portlinesses portmanteaus portmanteaux portraitists portraitures positionally positiveness positivistic positivities positroniums possessional possessively postabortion postaccident postbiblical postcardlike postcolleges postcolonial postconquest postcoronary postdeadline postdelivery postdiluvian postdoctoral posteditings postelection posteriority posteruptive postexercise postexposure postfeminist postfracture postgraduate posthospital posthumously posthypnotic postimperial postischemic postliterate postmedieval postmidnight postmistress postneonatal postorgasmic postponement postposition postpositive postprandial postromantic poststimulus postsurgical postsynaptic posttensions postulancies postulations postvaccinal postvagotomy postworkshop potabilities potentiality potentiating potentiation potentiators powerbrokers practicality practitioner praetorships pragmaticism pragmaticist pragmatistic praiseworthy pralltriller prankishness praseodymium praxeologies preachifying preadmission preadmitting preallotting preamplifier preannounced preannounces preapproving prearranging preassembled preassigning prebendaries prebreakfast precanceling precancelled precancerous precariously precautioned precedencies precensoring precentorial preceptorial preceptories precertified precertifies precessional preciosities preciousness precipitable precipitance precipitancy precipitants precipitated precipitates precipitator precisionist preclearance preclusively precociously precognition precognitive precomputers precomputing preconceived preconceives preconcerted precondition preconscious predeceasing predecessors predeparture predesignate predestinate predestining predetermine prediabetics predicaments predications predictively predigesting predigestion predilection predischarge prediscovery predisposing prednisolone predominance predominancy predominated predominates preeclampsia preeclamptic preelections preemergence preeminences preeminently preemptively preestablish preexistence prefabricate preferential prefinancing prefocussing preformation preformatted preformulate pregnability pregnenolone prehensility prehistorian prehistories preignitions preinaugural preinduction preinterview prejudgments prelapsarian prelibations preliterates premalignant premaritally premarketing premarriages premaxillary premeasuring premeditated premeditates premeditator premenstrual premierships premigration premodifying premoistened premonishing premonitions premunitions prenominated prenominates prenotifying prenumbering preoccupancy preoccupying preoperative preordaining preovulatory prepackaging preparations preparatives preparedness preponderant preponderate preportioned prepositions prepossessed prepossesses preposterous prepotencies preppinesses preprocessed preprocesses preprocessor preprogramed prepuberties prepubescent prepurchased prepurchases prequalified prequalifies prerecession prerecording preregisters prerehearsal prerequiring prerequisite prerogatived prerogatives presbyterate presbyterial presbyterian presbyteries prescheduled preschedules preschoolers prescreening prescription prescriptive preselecting preselection presentation presentative presentenced presentences presentiment presentments preservation preservative preshrinking presidencies presidential presignified presignifies preslaughter prespecified prespecifies pressureless pressurising pressurizers pressurizing presterilize prestressing prestructure presumptions presumptuous presupposing presweetened pretensioned pretermitted pretreatment prettinesses prevaricated prevaricates prevaricator preveniently preventative preventively previousness previsionary previsioning pridefulness priestliness priggishness primateships primitivisms primitivists primogenitor primordially princeliness principality printability printmakings prioritizing prissinesses privatdocent privatdozent privateering prizefighter prizewinners prizewinning probabilisms probabilists probationary probationers problematics proboscidean proboscidian procarbazine procathedral procedurally processional processioned proclamation proclivities proconsulate procreations proctodaeums proctologies proctologist proctorships procurations procurements prodigiously productional productively productivity profanations professional professorate professorial professoriat proficiently profiteering profiteroles profligacies profligately profoundness profundities progesterone progestogens proglottides prognathisms programmable programmatic programmings progressions progressives prohibitions projectional projectively prolegomenon proletarians proletariats proliferated proliferates prolifically prolificness prologuizing prolongation promontories promptitudes promptnesses promulgating promulgation promulgators pronephroses pronominally pronouncedly pronucleuses proofreaders proofreading propaedeutic propagandist propagandize propagations propensities propernesses propertyless prophetesses prophethoods prophylactic propitiating propitiation propitiators propitiatory propitiously proportional proportioned propositions propoxyphene propranolols proprietress prorogations prosauropods proscription proscriptive prosecutable prosecutions proselytised proselytises proselytisms proselytized proselytizer proselytizes prosobranchs prosodically prosopopoeia prospectuses prosperities prosperously prostacyclin prosthetists prostituting prostitution prostitutors prostrations protactinium protagonists protectively protectorate protectories proteinurias protensively proteoglycan protestation prothalamion prothalamium prothalluses prothonotary prothrombins protocolling protohistory protomartyrs protonations protonematal protophloems protoplanets protoplasmic prototrophic prototypical protozoology protractions protrusively protuberance proudhearted provableness proveniences proverbially providential provincially provisionals provisionary provisioners provisioning provocateurs provocations provocatives prudentially prussianised prussianises prussianized prussianizes psephologies psephologist pseudoallele pseudocyeses pseudocyesis pseudomonads pseudomorphs pseudonymity pseudonymous pseudopodial pseudopodium pseudorandom psychedelias psychedelics psychiatries psychiatrist psychoactive psychobabble psychodramas psychographs psychologies psychologise psychologism psychologist psychologize psychometric psychopathic psychosexual psychosocial psychotropic psychrometer psychrometry pteridophyte pteridosperm pterodactyls publications publicnesses pugnaciously pulchritudes pullulations pulverizable pumpernickel pumpkinseeds punchinellos punctuations punitiveness purblindness purification purificators purificatory puristically purplehearts purposefully pussyfooters pussyfooting pustulations putrefaction putrefactive putrescences puzzleheaded pyrargyrites pyridoxamine pyrocatechol pyroelectric pyrogenicity pyromaniacal pyromorphite pyrophyllite pyrotechnics pyrotechnist quacksalvers quadrangular quadraphonic quadrennials quadrenniums quadricepses quadrillions quadriphonic quadriplegia quadriplegic quadrivalent quadrumanous quaintnesses qualmishness quantifiable quantitating quantitation quantitative quantization quarantining quarterbacks quarterdecks quarterfinal quartersawed quarterstaff quaternaries quaternities quattrocento queasinesses questionable questionably questionless quicksilvers quinquennial quinquennium quintessence quintillions quirkinesses quislingisms quitclaiming quixotically quizzicality rabbinically racemization racetrackers racewalkings racketeering racquetballs radicalising radicalizing radiobiology radiocarbons radiochemist radioecology radioelement radiographed radiographic radioisotope radiolabeled radiolarians radiological radiologists radiolucency radiometries radiomimetic radionuclide radiotherapy radiothorium radiotracers raggednesses railroadings rakishnesses rambouillets rambunctious ramification rampageously rancidnesses randomnesses ranunculuses rapscallions rarefactions rataplanning ratatouilles rathskellers ratification ratiocinated ratiocinates ratiocinator rationalised rationalises rationalisms rationalists rationalized rationalizer rationalizes rationalness rattlebrains rattlesnakes ravenousness razzmatazzes reaccelerate reaccessions reaccredited reacquainted reactivating reactivation reactiveness reactivities readableness readdressing readjustable readjustment readmissions reafforested reaggregated reaggregates realignments realizations reallocating reallocation realpolitiks reanimations reannexation reappearance reappointing reapportions reappraisals reappraising rearticulate reasonlessly reassemblage reassemblies reassembling reassertions reassessment reassignment reassumption reassurances reassuringly reattachment reattempting reattributed reattributes reauthorized reauthorizes rebelliously rebroadcasts recalcitrant recalculated recalculates recalibrated recalibrates recanalizing recantations recapitalize recapitulate receivership recentnesses recentrifuge receptionist recertifying recessionals recessionary rechallenged rechallenges rechanneling rechannelled rechargeable rechartering rechristened recidivistic reciprocally reciprocated reciprocates reciprocator recirculated recirculates recklessness reclamations reclassified reclassifies recognitions recognizable recognizably recognizance recollecting recollection recolonizing recombinants recommencing recommending recommission recommitment recommittals recommitting recompensing reconceiving reconception reconcilable recondensing reconditions reconfigured reconfigures reconfirming reconnecting reconnection reconnoiters reconnoitred reconnoitres reconquering reconsecrate reconsidered reconstitute reconstructs recontacting recontouring reconversion reconverting reconveyance reconvicting reconviction reconvincing recordations recreational recriminated recriminates recrudescent recrudescing recruitments recultivated recultivates recumbencies recuperating recuperation recuperative redecorating redecoration redecorators rededicating rededication redefinition redeliveries redelivering redemptioner redeployment redepositing redescribing redetermined redetermines redevelopers redeveloping redigestions redintegrate redirections rediscounted rediscovered rediscussing redisplaying redissolving redistilling redistribute redistricted reducibility reductionism reductionist redundancies reduplicated reduplicates reeducations reembroiders reemergences reemphasized reemphasizes reemployment reenactments reencounters reenergizing reengagement reengineered reenlistment reenthroning reequipments reescalating reescalation reestimating reevaluating reevaluation reexperience reexpressing refashioning reflationary reflectances reflectional reflectively reflectivity reflectorize reformations reformatting reformulated reformulates refortifying refoundation refractively refractivity refractories refractorily refrainments refreshening refreshingly refreshments refrigerants refrigerated refrigerates refrigerator refurbishers refurbishing refurnishing regardlessly regeneracies regenerately regenerating regeneration regenerative regenerators regionalisms regionalists regionalized regionalizes registerable registration regressively regressivity regularities regularizing regurgitated regurgitates rehabilitant rehabilitate rehumanizing rehydratable rehydrations rehypnotized rehypnotizes reidentified reidentifies reifications reimbursable reimplanting reimposition reimpression reincarnated reincarnates reindictment reinfections reinflations reinhabiting reinitiating reinjections reinnervated reinnervates reinoculated reinoculates reinsertions reinspecting reinspection reinstalling reinstituted reinstitutes reinsurances reintegrated reintegrates reinterprets reinterviews reintroduced reintroduces reinventions reinvestment reinvigorate reiterations rejuvenating rejuvenation rejuvenators rekeyboarded relacquering relandscaped relandscapes relationally relationship relativistic relativities relativizing relentlessly reliableness relicensures religionists religionless relinquished relinquishes reliquefying relubricated relubricates reluctancies reluctations remaindering remediations rememberable remembrancer remembrances remigrations remilitarize reminiscence remissnesses remobilizing remoistening remonetizing remonstrance remonstrants remonstrated remonstrates remonstrator remorsefully remortgaging remotenesses remotivating remotivation removability remunerating remuneration remunerative remunerators remuneratory renaissances renaturation rencountered rendezvoused rendezvouses renegotiable renegotiated renegotiates renewability renographies renominating renomination renormalized renormalizes renouncement renovascular renunciation renunciative renunciatory reoccupation reoccurrence reoperations reorganizers reorganizing reorientated reorientates reoutfitting reoxidations repartitions repatriating repatriation repatterning repellencies repercussion repercussive repetitional repetitively rephotograph replacements replantation replastering replenishers replenishing replications repolarizing repopularize repopulating repopulation repositioned repositories repossessing repossession repossessors reprehending reprehension reprehensive representers representing repressively repressurize reprimanding repristinate reprivatized reprivatizes reproachable reprobations reprocessing reproducible reproducibly reproduction reproductive reprograming reprogrammed reprographer reprographic reprovisions republishers republishing repudiations repugnancies repurchasing reputability reputational requalifying requirements requisitions reradiations reregistered reregulating reregulation rescheduling rescindments researchable researchists resegregated resegregates resemblances resensitized resensitizes resentencing reservations reservedness resettlement resignations resignedness resiliencies resistlessly resocialized resocializes resolidified resolidifies resoluteness resoundingly respectables respectfully respectively respirations respirometer respirometry resplendence resplendency responsively responsories ressentiment restabilized restabilizes restatements restaurateur restimulated restimulates restitutions restlessness restorations restoratives restrainable restrainedly restrengthen restrictedly restrictions restrictives restructured restructures resubmission resubmitting resurrecting resurrection resuscitated resuscitates resuscitator resynthesize retaliations retardations reticulately reticulating reticulation reticulocyte retightening retinotectal retiringness retractility retransforms retranslated retranslates retrenchment retributions retroactions retrocession retrodicting retrodiction retrodictive retrofitting retroflexion retrogradely retrograding retrogressed retrogresses retrospected retroversion retroviruses reunionistic reupholsters revaccinated revaccinates revalidating revalidation revalorizing revaluations revegetating revegetation revengefully reverberated reverberates reversionary reversioners revictualing revictualled revisionisms revisionists revitalising revitalizing revivalistic reviviscence rhabdocoeles rhabdomancer rhapsodizing rhetorically rhetoricians rheumatology rhinoceroses rhinoscopies rhinoviruses rhizoctonias rhizospheres rhododendron rhodomontade rhombohedral rhombohedron rhythmically ribbonfishes ribonuclease ricochetting ridiculously rightfulness rigorousness risibilities risorgimento roadblocking roadholdings robotization robustiously robustnesses rockabillies rockhounding rodenticides rodomontades roisterously romanization romantically romanticised romanticises romanticisms romanticists romanticized romanticizes rootednesses rootlessness ropedancings rotogravures rottennesses rottenstones rotundnesses roughcasting roughhousing rowanberries rubbernecked rubbernecker rubefacients rubrications ruefulnesses ruggednesses ruminatively rumormongers rustications rustproofing ruthlessness sabermetrics saccharified saccharifies saccharinity saccharoidal sacculations sacerdotally sacramentals sacrednesses sacrilegious saddlecloths sadistically safecrackers safecracking safeguarding safekeepings sailboarding sailboatings salabilities salamandrine salesmanship salespersons salinization salinometers sallownesses salpiglosses salpiglossis saltimboccas salubriously salutariness salutational salutatorian salutatories salutiferous salvationism salvationist sanctimonies sanctionable sandblasters sandblasting sandpainting sandpapering sanguinarias sanguinarily sanguineness sanguinities sanitization sansculottes sansculottic sansevierias saponifiable saprophagous sarcomatoses sarcomatosis sarcoplasmic sardonically sardonicisms sarsaparilla satisfaction satisfactory satisfyingly sauerbratens saurischians savagenesses savorinesses saxophonists scabrousness scaffoldings scandalising scandalizing scandalously scantinesses scapegoating scapegoatism scarabaeuses scaramouches scarcenesses scaremongers scarifyingly scatological scatteration scatterbrain scattergoods scattergrams scatteringly sceneshifter scenographer scenographic schematizing schismatical schismatized schismatizes schistosomal schistosomes schizogonies schizogonous schizophrene schmaltziest schnorkeling scholarships schoolboyish schoolfellow schoolhouses schoolmaster schottisches schussboomer schwarmereis scintigraphy scintillated scintillates scintillator scissortails sclerenchyma sclerodermas sclerometers scolopendras scopolamines scorekeepers scornfulness scoutmasters scratchboard scratchiness screenwriter screwdrivers screwinesses scrimshander scrimshawing scripturally scriptwriter scrupulosity scrupulously scrutinising scrutinizers scrutinizing sculptresses sculpturally scuppernongs scurrilities scurrilously scurvinesses scuttlebutts scyphistomae scyphistomas seamlessness seamstresses searchlights secessionism secessionist secludedness secobarbital secretagogue secretariats secretionary sectarianism sectarianize sectionalism secularising secularistic secularities secularizers secularizing securenesses securitizing sedatenesses sedimentable seductresses sedulousness seemlinesses segmentation segregations seigniorages seismicities seismographs seismography seismologies seismologist seismometers seismometric selaginellas selectionist selectnesses seleniferous selenologies selenologist selflessness selfsameness semantically semanticists semeiologies semiabstract semiannually semiarboreal semicircular semiclassics semicolonial semicolonies semidarkness semideifying semidetached semidiameter semidominant semifinalist semifinished semiflexible semiliterate semilustrous semimetallic semimonastic semimystical seminiferous seminudities semiofficial semiological semiologists semioticians semioticists semipalmated semiparasite semiprecious semitrailers semitropical semiweeklies sempervivums sempiternity sempstresses senatorships senectitudes sensibleness sensitometer sensitometry sensorimotor sensualistic sensualities sensualizing sensuosities sensuousness sentinelling separability separateness separatistic septennially septentrions sepulchering sepulchrally sequaciously sequentially sequestering sequestrated sequestrates seraphically serenenesses sericultural sericultures serigraphers serigraphies seronegative seropositive seropurulent serotonergic serpentinely servanthoods serviceberry servicewoman servicewomen seventeenths severability severenesses sewabilities sexagenarian sexagesimals sexdecillion sextodecimos sextuplicate shabbinesses shacklebones shadowboxing shadowgraphs shadowgraphy shagginesses shamefacedly shamefulness shareability sharecropped sharecropper shareholders sharpshooter shatteringly shatterproof sheepberries sheepherders sheepherding sheepishness sheepshearer shellackings shellcracker shellfishery shellshocked shelterbelts shergottites shiftinesses shinplasters shipbuilders shipbuilding shipwrecking shirtdresses shirtsleeved shirtsleeves shittimwoods shoddinesses shortchanged shortchanger shortchanges shortcomings shortcutting shortsighted showmanships showstoppers showstopping shrewdnesses shrewishness shrievalties shrillnesses shuffleboard shuttlecocks sicklinesses sideslipping sidesteppers sidestepping sidetracking significance significancy silentnesses silhouetting silhouettist sillimanites silverfishes silverpoints silversmiths silviculture similarities simoniacally simpleminded simplenesses simplicially simplicities simulcasting simultaneity simultaneous sinfoniettas sinfulnesses singlenesses singlesticks singularized singularizes sinisterness sinusoidally siphonophore siphonostele skateboarder skeletonised skeletonises skeletonized skeletonizer skeletonizes skillessness skillfulness skimpinesses skinninesses skittishness skullduggery skyrocketing slanderously slanginesses slaphappiest slaughterers slaughtering slaughterous slaveholders slaveholding slavocracies sleazinesses sledgehammer sleepinesses sleepwalkers sleepwalking slenderizing sleuthhounds slickensides slightnesses slinkinesses slipperiness slipstreamed sloganeering sloppinesses slothfulness slovenliness sluggardness sluggishness slumgullions slumpflation slushinesses sluttishness smallclothes smallholders smallholding smarminesses smithsonites smoothnesses smorgasbords smudginesses smuttinesses snaggleteeth snaggletooth snappinesses snappishness snapshooters snapshotting sneakinesses snickersnees sniffinesses sniffishness sniperscopes snobbishness snollygoster snootinesses snottinesses snowboarders snowboarding snowmobilers snowmobiling snowmobilist snubbinesses sociableness sociobiology sociologeses sociological sociologists sociometries sockdolagers sockdologers soddennesses softheadedly solarization soldierships solemnifying solemnnesses solicitation solicitously solidaristic solidarities solifluction soliloquised soliloquises soliloquists soliloquized soliloquizer soliloquizes solitariness solmizations solubilising solubilities solubilizing somatologies somatomedins somatopleure somatostatin somatotropin sombernesses somersaulted somersetting somnambulant somnambulate somnambulism somnambulist somnifacient songstresses songwritings sonneteering sonographers sonographies sonorousness soothingness soothsayings sophisticate soporiferous sordidnesses soullessness soundproofed southeastern southeasters southernmost southernness southernwood southwestern southwesters spaceflights spacewalkers spacewalking spaciousness spaghettinis spanakopitas spanokopitas sparkplugged sparsenesses spasmolytics spasticities spatialities spatterdocks speakerphone speakerships spearfishing spearheading specialising specialistic specialities specializing speciational specifically speciosities speciousness spectaculars spectatorial spectrograms spectrograph spectrometer spectrometry spectroscope spectroscopy speculations speechifying speechlessly speechwriter speedballing speedboating speedinesses speedometers speleologies speleologist spellbinders spellbinding spendthrifts spermagonium spermathecae spermathecas spermatocyte spermatozoal spermatozoan spermatozoid spermatozoon spermophiles spessartines spessartites sphericities spheroidally spherometers spheroplasts sphingosines sphygmograph spiculations spiegeleisen spiffinesses spinnerettes spinsterhood spiritedness spiritlessly spiritualism spiritualist spirituality spiritualize spirochaetes spirometries spitefullest spitefulness splashboards splendidness splenomegaly spokespeople spokesperson sponginesses sponsorships spookinesses sporadically sporogeneses sporogenesis sportfishing sportfulness sportinesses sportiveness sportscaster sportswriter sporulations spotlessness spotlighting spottinesses sprachgefuhl spreadsheets sprightfully sprightliest springboards springhouses springwaters sprucenesses spunkinesses spuriousness squarenesses squarishness squirarchies squirrelling stablenesses stablishment stadtholders stagecoaches stagflations staggeringly stainability stakeholders stallholders stalwartness standardbred standardised standardises standardized standardizes standardless standpatters standpattism stapedectomy staphylinids starboarding startlements stationeries statistician statuesquely steadinesses stealthiness steamfitters steaminesses steamrollers steamrolling steatopygias steatopygous steatorrheas steelinesses steelmakings steelworkers steeplechase steeplejacks steerageways stenographer stenographic stenothermal stenotypists stepbrothers stepchildren stepdaughter stepfamilies stereographs stereography stereoisomer stereologies stereophonic stereopsides stereopticon stereoscopes stereoscopic stereotactic stereotypers stereotypies stereotyping sterlingness sternocostal sternutation sternutators stertorously stethoscopes stethoscopic stewardesses stewardships stichomythia stichomythic stickhandled stickhandler stickhandles stickinesses sticklebacks stigmasterol stigmatizing stilbestrols stimulations stinginesses stipulations stockbreeder stockbrokers stockbroking stockholders stockinesses stockinettes stockjobbers stockjobbing stockkeepers stocktakings stodginesses stomachaches stomatitides stomatitises stonecutters stonecutting stonemasonry stonewallers stonewalling stonyhearted storekeepers storminesses storyboarded storytellers storytelling stouthearted strabismuses straightaway straightbred straightedge straightened straightener straightness straitjacket straitnesses strandedness stranglehold strangulated strangulates straphangers straphanging strategizing stratigraphy stratocumuli stratosphere strawberries strawflowers streamliners streamlining streetlights streetscapes streetwalker strengthened strengthener streptococci streptolysin streptomyces streptomycin strictnesses stridulating stridulation stridulatory stridulously stringcourse stringencies stringhalted stringpieces stringybarks stripteasers strobilation stroboscopes stroboscopic stromatolite strontianite strophanthin structurally stubbornness studentships studiousness stuffinesses stupefaction stupefyingly stupendously stupidnesses sturdinesses stylizations subantarctic subarachnoid subauditions subbasements subcentrally subcommittee subcommunity subcomponent subconscious subcontinent subcontracts subculturing subcuratives subcutaneous subdebutante subdecisions subdirectors subdistricts subdividable subdivisions subdominants subeconomies subeditorial subepidermal suberization subglacially subinfeudate subintervals subirrigated subirrigates subjacencies subjectively subjectivise subjectivism subjectivist subjectivity subjectivize subjugations subjunctions subjunctives sublanguages sublibrarian sublicensing sublimations subliminally sublittorals subluxations submaxillary submergences submersibles submicrogram subminiature subministers submissively submultiples submunitions subnormality suboptimized suboptimizes suborbicular subordinated subordinates subordinator subornations subparagraph subpotencies subprincipal subprocesses subrogations subsatellite subsaturated subscription subsecretary subsentences subsequences subsequently subservience subserviency subsidiaries subsidiarily subsidiarity subsistences subsocieties subsonically subspecialty substantials substantiate substantival substantives substituents substituting substitution substitutive substructure subsumptions subtemperate subtenancies subterranean subthreshold subtlenesses subtotalling subtractions subumbrellas suburbanised suburbanises suburbanites suburbanized suburbanizes subvarieties subversively subvocalized subvocalizes succedaneous succedaneums successfully successional successively succinctness suddennesses sudoriferous sufficiently suffixations suffocations suffragettes sugarberries sugarcoating suggestively suitableness sulfadiazine sulfonamides sulfonations sulfonylurea sulfuretting sullennesses sulphurising sultrinesses summarizable summerhouses summersaults sunscreening superabounds superalterns superannuate superathlete superbitches superbnesses superbombers supercabinet supercargoes supercarrier supercenters supercharged supercharger supercharges superciliary supercilious superclasses supercluster supercoiling superconduct supercooling supercurrent superegoists superelevate supereminent superexpress supergravity supergrowths superhardens superheaters superheating superhelical superhelices superhelixes superheroine superhighway superhumanly superimposed superimposes superinduced superinduces superinfects superintends superlatives superlawyers supermarkets supermassive supernatants supernations supernatural supernatures superorganic superorgasms superovulate superpatriot superpersons superplastic superplayers superposable superpowered superpremium superprofits superquality superrealism superschools superscribed superscribes superscripts supersecrecy supersecrets supersedures supersellers supersensory supersession supersingers supersleuths superspecial superstardom superstation superstition superstratum superstrikes superstrings supersurgeon supersystems supertankers supervenient supervention supervisions superweapons supinenesses supplemental supplemented supplementer supplenesses supplicating supplication supplicatory suppositions suppositious suppressants suppressible suppressions suppurations supraliminal supraorbital supravitally supremacists suprematisms suprematists surefootedly surfboarders surfboarding surmountable surpassingly surprisingly surrealistic surrebutters surrejoinder surrendering surroundings surveillance surveillants survivalists survivorship susceptivity suspenseless suspensively suspensories suspicioning suspiciously suspirations sustentation sustentative susurrations suzerainties sveltenesses swaggeringly swainishness swallowtails swampinesses swankinesses swashbuckled swashbuckler swashbuckles sweaterdress sweatinesses sweepingness swelteringly swingletrees switchbacked switchblades switchboards swordplayers sycophancies sycophantish sycophantism syllabically syllabicated syllabicates syllabifying sylviculture symbolically symmetallism symmetrizing sympathetics sympathising sympathizers sympathizing symposiarchs synaestheses synaesthesia synaesthesis synaptically synaptosomal synaptosomes synarthroses synarthrosis synchroneity synchronical synchronised synchronises synchronisms synchronized synchronizer synchronizes synchroscope synchrotrons syncopations syncretising syncretistic syncretizing syndactylies syndactylism syndetically syndicalisms syndicalists syndications synecologies synergically synesthesias synonymities synonymizing synonymously synoptically synthesizers synthesizing systematised systematises systematisms systematists systematized systematizer systematizes systemically tabernacling tabernacular tachycardias tactlessness tagliatelles talebearings tangentially tangibleness taphonomists tarradiddles taskmistress tastefulness tautological tautomerisms tawdrinesses taxidermists teaspoonfuls teaspoonsful technetronic technicality technicalize technobabble technocratic technologies technologist technologize technophiles technophobes technophobia technophobic tectonically teenyboppers teeterboards teetotalisms teetotalists teetotallers teetotalling telecommuted telecommuter telecommutes telegramming telegraphers telegraphese telegraphies telegraphing telegraphist telemarketer telemetering telencephala teleological teleologists telephonists teleprinters teleutospore tellurometer telocentrics temperaments temperatures temporalized temporalizes tenabilities tendernesses tenderometer tendinitides tendinitises tendonitides tendonitises tenebrionids tensiometers tensiometric teratologies teratologist tercentenary tergiversate terminations terraforming terrestrials terribleness terrifically terrifyingly territorials tessellating tessellation testamentary testcrossing testimonials testosterone tetanization tetchinesses tetracycline tetradrachms tetragonally tetrahedrite tetrahedrons tetrahymenas tetrapyrrole tetrazoliums tetrodotoxin thalassaemia thalassemias thalassemics thalassocrat thalidomides thallophytes thallophytic thankfullest thankfulness thanksgiving thaumaturges thaumaturgic theatergoers theatergoing theatrically theistically thematically theobromines theocentrism theocratical theologising theologizers theologizing theophylline theoretician theorization theosophical theosophists therapeutics thereinafter thermalizing thermoclines thermocouple thermoformed thermographs thermography thermohaline thermolabile thermometers thermometric thermophiles thermophilic thermoscopes thermosphere thermostable thermostated thermostatic thermotactic thermotropic thievishness thimbleberry thimbleweeds thingamabobs thingamajigs thingumajigs thinkingness thiocyanates thioridazine thiosulfates thistledowns thitherwards thixotropies thoracically thorninesses thoroughbass thoroughbred thoroughfare thoroughness thoroughpins thoroughwort thoughtfully thousandfold thriftlessly thrombocytes thrombocytic thrombolytic thromboxanes throttleable throttlehold throughither throughother thumbtacking thunderbirds thunderbolts thunderclaps thundercloud thunderheads thunderingly thunderously thunderstone thunderstorm thymectomies thymectomize thyrotrophic thyrotrophin thyrotropins tibiofibulae tibiofibulas ticklishness ticktacktoes tigerishness timberdoodle timekeepings timelessness timelinesses timepleasers timeservings timocratical timorousness tinctorially tinsmithings tirelessness tiresomeness titaniferous titillations titleholders toastmasters tobacconists tobogganings tobogganists toddlerhoods togetherness toilsomeness tolbutamides tolerability tomfooleries tomographies tonelessness toothbrushes topdressings topicalities toploftiness topographers topographies topstitching torchbearers torrentially torridnesses tortuosities tortuousness totalisators totalitarian totalizators touchinesses tourbillions towardliness toxicologies toxicologist toxigenicity toxophilites traceability tracheitides tracheitises tracheophyte tracheostomy tracklayings trackwalkers tractability trademarking tradescantia tradespeople traditionary traducements tragediennes tragicomical trailblazers trailblazing trailbreaker trainability trainbearers traineeships traitoresses traitorously trajectories trampoliners trampolining trampolinist tranquilized tranquilizer tranquilizes tranquillest tranquillity tranquillize tranquilness transactions transaminase transceivers transcendent transcending transcribers transcribing transductant transduction transections transfecting transfection transferable transferases transference transferrers transferring transferrins transfigured transfigures transfixions transformers transforming transfusable transfusible transfusions transgressed transgresses transgressor transhipping transhumance transhumants transiencies transitional transitively transitivity transitorily translatable translations translocated translocates translucence translucency transmigrate transmission transmissive transmittals transmitters transmitting transmogrify transmontane transmutable transnatural transoceanic transpacific transparence transparency transpicuous transpierced transpierces transplanted transplanter transponders transpontine transportees transporters transporting transposable transsexuals transshaping transshipped transudation transuranics transuranium transvaluate transvaluing transversals transversely transvestism transvestite trapezohedra trapshooters trapshooting trashinesses traumatising traumatizing treatability tredecillion trellisworks tremendously trenchancies trendinesses trendsetters trendsetting trepanations trephination trepidations trestleworks triangularly triangulated triangulates tribespeople tribological tribologists tribulations tribuneships trichinizing trichlorfons trichlorphon trichologies trichologist trichomonads trichopteran trichotomies trichotomous trichromatic trickinesses trickishness trierarchies trifluralins trifoliolate trifurcating trifurcation triglyceride triglyphical trigonometry trilingually trimethoprim trimetrogons triphosphate triphthongal tripinnately triplicating triplication triplicities tristfulness trisyllables triturations triumphalism triumphalist triumphantly triumvirates trivialising trivialities trivializing trochanteral trochanteric trochophores trolleybuses trophallaxes trophallaxis trophoblasts trophozoites tropicalized tropicalizes tropological tropomyosins tropospheres tropospheric trothplights troublemaker troubleshoot truckmasters truculencies truncheoning trustability trustbusters trusteeships trustfulness trustinesses trustingness truthfulness trypanosomes trypsinogens tryptophanes tuberculated tuberculoses tuberculosis tuberosities tubocurarine tumefactions tumultuously tunabilities turbellarian turbidimeter turbidimetry turbidnesses turbocharged turbocharger turbulencies turgescences turgidnesses turpentining turtlenecked tweedinesses twelvemonths tympaniteses typefounders typefounding typesettings typewritings typicalities typification typographers typographies typographing tyrannically tyrannicides tyrannosaurs tyrothricins ubiquitously uglification ultimateness ultracareful ultracompact ultradistant ultraheating ultraleftism ultraleftist ultraliberal ultramarines ultramontane ultraprecise ultraradical ultrarealism ultrarealist ultrarefined ultraserious ultravacuums ultraviolent ultraviolets umbilication umbrageously unacceptable unacceptably unacclimated unaccredited unaccustomed unacquainted unadvertised unaffectedly unaffiliated unaffordable unaggressive unalleviated unambivalent unanalyzable unanswerable unanswerably unapologetic unappealable unappeasable unappeasably unappetizing unassailable unassailably unassociated unattainable unattenuated unattractive unattributed unauthorized unavailingly unbarricaded unbecomingly unbelievable unbelievably unbiasedness unblinkingly unblushingly unbreachable unbreathable unbridgeable uncalculated uncalibrated uncapturable uncelebrated uncensorious unchallenged unchangeable unchangeably unchangingly unchaperoned uncharitable uncharitably unchasteness unchastities unchivalrous unchristened unchronicled uncinariases uncinariasis uncirculated unclassified uncluttering uncoalescing uncoercively uncommercial uncommonness uncompelling uncomplacent uncompounded unconformity unconfounded unconjugated unconsidered unconstraint uncontracted uncontrolled unconvincing uncorrelated uncourageous uncovenanted uncritically unctuousness uncultivable uncultivated undecillions undeciphered undecomposed undefoliated undemocratic undependable underachieve underbellies underbidders underbidding underbrushes underbudding undercharged undercharges underclasses underclothes undercoating undercooling undercounted undercurrent undercutting underdrawers underexposed underexposes underfeeding underfunding undergarment undergirding undergrounds undergrowths underinsured underlapping underlayment underletting underlyingly underpayment underpinning underplaying underpowered underpricing underreacted underreports underrunning underscoring underselling undersheriff undershirted understaffed understating understeered understories understudied understudies undersurface undertakings undertenants underthrusts underutilize undervaluing underweights underwhelmed underwriters underwriting underwritten undesignated undesirables undetectable undetermined undigestible undiminished undiplomatic undischarged undiscovered undisputable undistracted undocumented undramatized unduplicated uneasinesses unecological uneconomical unembittered unemployable unemployment unencumbered unevennesses uneventfully unexpectedly unexpressive unexpurgated unfairnesses unfaithfully unfamiliarly unfastidious unfathomable unfertilized unflaggingly unflamboyant unflattering unforgivable unformulated unfortunates unfrequented unfriendlier unfruitfully ungainliness ungenerosity ungenerously ungentrified ungerminated unglamorized ungovernable ungracefully ungraciously ungratefully unhandsomely unharnessing unhealthiest unhesitating unhistorical unholinesses unhydrolyzed unhyphenated unhysterical unicamerally unidentified unifications unifoliolate uniformities unilaterally unillusioned unimaginable unimaginably unimportance unimpressive uninfluenced uninoculated uninstructed unintegrated uninterested unionisation unionization uniquenesses unironically unirradiated unisexuality unitarianism unitizations universalism universalist universality universalize universities unjustnesses unkennelling unkindliness unkindnesses unlawfulness unlikelihood unlikeliness unlikenesses unlistenable unloveliness unmanageable unmanageably unmanneredly unmarketable unmeasurable unmechanized unmercifully unmistakable unmistakably unmodernized unmoralities unmyelinated unnegotiable unnewsworthy unnilhexiums unnilpentium unnilquadium unnoticeable unnourishing unobservable unobstructed unobtainable unofficially unornamented unorthodoxly unoxygenated unparalleled unpardonable unpatentable unperceptive unpersuasive unpleasantly unpopularity unprejudiced unpretending unprincipled unprivileged unproductive unprofitable unprofitably unprogrammed unpronounced unpropitious unprosperous unpublicized unpunctuated unquenchable unquestioned unrealizable unreasonable unreasonably unrecognized unreconciled unrecyclable unredeemable unreflective unregenerate unregistered unreinforced unrelievedly unremarkable unremarkably unremembered unremorseful unrepeatable unreservedly unresolvable unresponsive unrestrained unrestraints unrestricted unreturnable unreviewable unrhetorical unripenesses unrulinesses unsanctioned unsatisfying unscientific unscramblers unscrambling unscriptural unscrupulous unsearchable unsearchably unseasonable unseasonably unseemliness unsegregated unsensitized unsettlement unsettlingly unsightliest unskillfully unsocialized unstableness unsteadiness unsterilized unstintingly unstoppering unstratified unstructured unsubsidized unsuccessful unsupervised unsurprising unsuspecting unsuspicious unsystematic untenability unthinkingly untidinesses untimeliness untouchables untowardness untranslated untruthfully unvaccinated unvanquished unventilated unverbalized unverifiable unwarinesses unwashedness unwaveringly unwieldiness unwontedness unworthiness unyieldingly upholsterers upholsteries upholstering uppercutting uppishnesses uppitinesses uppitynesses uproariously uprootedness upwardnesses urbanisation urbanization urbanologies urbanologist urediospores urethritides urethritises urethroscope uricotelisms urinogenital urochordates urolithiases urolithiasis usablenesses usefulnesses usufructuary usuriousness utilitarians utilizations uxoriousness vacantnesses vacationists vacationland vaccinations vacillations vacuolations vagabondages vagabondisms vaginismuses vainglorious valedictions valetudinary valorization valpolicella valuableness valvulitides valvulitises vanguardisms vanguardists vanquishable vaporishness vaporization vaporousness variableness varicosities variegations vasculatures vasculitides vasectomized vasectomizes vasoactivity vasodilation vasodilators vasopressins vasopressors vaticinating vaticination vaticinators vaudevillian vegetational vegetatively velarization velocimeters venerability venesections vengefulness venialnesses venipuncture venographies venomousness ventilations ventromedial veratridines veridicality verification vermiculated vermiculites vernacularly verticalness verticillate vesicularity vesiculating vesiculation vespertilian vesuvianites veterinarian veterinaries vexillologic vibraharpist vibraphonist viceroyships vichyssoises vicissitudes victoriously videographer vigilantisms vigintillion vigorousness vilification villainesses villainously vinaigrettes vinblastines vincristines vindications vindictively vinedressers vineyardists vinicultures vinification violableness violoncellos virginalists virtualities virtuosities virtuousness viruliferous viscoelastic viscometries viscosimeter viscountcies visibilities visitatorial vitalization viticultural viticultures vitrectomies vituperating vituperation vituperative vituperators vituperatory vivification viviparities viviparously vivisections vocabularies vocalization vocationally vociferating vociferation vociferators vociferously voicefulness voidableness volatileness volatilising volatilities volatilizing volcanically volcanologic volubilities voluminosity voluminously voluntarisms voluntarists voluntaryism voluntaryist volunteering volunteerism voluptuaries voluptuously votivenesses vulcanisates vulcanizates wainscotings wainscotting walkingstick wallpapering wallydraigle wantonnesses warehouseman warehousemen warmongering wastebaskets wastefulness watchdogging watchfulness watchmakings watercoolers watercourses watercresses waterflooded waterfowlers waterfowling waterinesses waterishness waterlogging watermanship watermarking waterproofed waterproofer waterskiings weaklinesses wearifulness weatherboard weathercasts weathercocks weatherglass weatherizing weatherproof weightlessly weightlifter weisenheimer welterweight westernising westernizing wharfmasters wheelbarrows wheelwrights wheezinesses whencesoever wherethrough wherewithals whiffletrees whigmaleerie whimsicality whippletrees whippoorwill whipstitched whipstitches whisperingly whitethroats whitewashers whitewashing wholehearted whoremasters whoremongers whortleberry wickednesses widowerhoods wienerwursts wifelinesses wildernesses wildfowlings windbreakers windjammings windlestraws windsurfings winglessness wintergreens wintrinesses wisecrackers wisecracking wisenheimers witchgrasses witenagemote witenagemots withdrawable withoutdoors withstanding wobblinesses woefulnesses wollastonite womanishness wondrousness wontednesses woodcarvings woodchoppers woodcuttings woodenheaded woodennesses woodshedding woodworkings woolgatherer woollinesses wordlessness wordsmithery workableness workaholisms workingwoman workingwomen worklessness workmanships workstations worshipfully worthinesses wrathfulness wretchedness wristwatches wrongfulness wunderkinder xanthophylls xerographies xerophytisms xiphisternum xylographers xylographies xylophonists yeastinesses yellowhammer yellowthroat yesternights youngberries youthfulness zillionaires zoantharians zoogeography zoologically zooplankters zooplanktons zoosporangia zootechnical zooxanthella zwitterionic zygapophyses zygapophysis zygomorphies
1 answer
