nuclear reactor

Any of several devices in which a chain reaction is initiated and controlled, with the resulting heat typically used for power generation and the neutrons and fission products used for military, experimental, and medical purposes. Also called atomic reactor.

A system utilizing nuclear fission in a controlled and self-sustaining manner. Neutrons are used to fission the nuclear fuel, and the fission reaction produces not only energy and radiation but also additional neutrons. Thus a neutron chain reaction ensues. A nuclear reactor provides the assembly of materials to sustain and control the neutron chain reaction, to appropriately transport the heat produced from the fission reactions, and to provide the necessary safety features to cope with the radiation and radioactive materials produced by its operation. See also Chain reaction (physics); Nuclear fission.

Nuclear reactors are used in a variety of ways as sources for energy, for nuclear irradiations, and to produce special materials by transmutation reactions. The generation of electrical energy by a nuclear power plant makes use of heat to produce steam or to heat gases to drive turbogenerators. Direct conversion of the fission energy into useful work is possible, but an efficient process has not yet been realized to accomplish this. Thus, in its operation the nuclear power plant is similar to the conventional coal-fired plant, except that the nuclear reactor is substituted for the conventional boiler as the source of heat.

The rating of a reactor is usually given in kilowatts (kW) or megawatts-thermal [MW(th)], representing the heat generation rate. The net output of electricity of a nuclear plant is about one-third of the thermal output. Significant economic gains have been achieved by building improved nuclear reactors with outputs of about 3300 MW(th) and about 1000 MW-electrical [MW(e)]. See also Electric power generation; Nuclear power.

Fuel and moderator

The fission neutrons are released at high energies and are called fast neutrons. The average kinetic energy is 2 MeV, with a corresponding neutron speed of 1/15 the speed of light. Neutrons slow down through collisions with nuclei of the surrounding material. This slowing-down process is made more effective by the introduction of materials of low atomic weight, called moderators, such as heavy water (deuterium oxide), ordinary (light) water, graphite, beryllium, beryllium oxide, hydrides, and organic materials (hydrocarbons). Neutrons that have slowed down to an energy state in equilibrium with the surrounding materials are called thermal neutrons, moving at 0.0006% of the speed of light. The probability that a neutron will cause the fuel material to fission is greatly enhanced at thermal energies, and thus most reactors utilize a moderator for the conversion of fast neutrons to thermal neutrons. See also Neutron.

With suitable concentrations of the fuel material, neutron chain reactions also can be sustained at higher neutron energy levels. The energy range between fast and thermal is designated as intermediate. Fast reactors do not have moderators and are relatively small.

Only three isotopes—uranium-235, uranium-233, and plutonium-239—are feasible as fission fuels, but a wide selection of materials incorporating these isotopes is available.

Heat removal

The major portion of the energy released by the fissioning of the fuel is in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragments, which in turn is converted into heat through the slowing down and stopping of the fragments. For the heterogeneous reactors this heating occurs within the fuel elements. Heating also arises through the release and absorption of the radiation from the fission process and from the radioactive materials formed. The heat generated in a reactor is removed by a primary coolant flowing through it.

Reactor coolants

Coolants are selected for specific applications on the basis of their heat-transfer capability, physical properties, and nuclear properties.

Water has many desirable characteristics. It was employed as the coolant in many of the first production reactors, and most power reactors still utilize water as the coolant. In a boiling-water reactor (BWR; see illustration), the water boils directly in the reactor core to make steam that is piped to the turbine. In a pressurized-water reactor (PWR), the coolant water is kept under increased pressure to prevent boiling. It transfers heat to a separate stream of feed water in a steam generator, changing that water to steam.

Boiling-water reactor. (Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc.)

For both boiling-water and pressurized-water reactors, the water serves as the moderator as well as the coolant. Both light water and heavy water are excellent neutron moderators, although heavy water (deuterium oxide) has a neutron-absorption cross section approximately 1/500 that for light water that makes it possible to operate reactors using heavy water with natural uranium fuel. The high pressure necessary for water-cooled power reactors determines much of the plant design. See also Nuclear reaction.

Gases are inherently poor heat-transfer fluids as compared with liquids because of their low density. This situation can be improved by increasing the gas pressure; however, this introduces other problems and costs. Helium is the most attractive gas (it is chemically inert and has good thermodynamic and nuclear properties) and has been selected as the coolant for the development of high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) systems, in which the gas transfers heat from the reactor core to a steam generator. The British advanced gas reactor (AGR), however, uses carbon dioxide (CO₂). Gases are capable of operation at extremely high temperature, and they are being considered for special process applications and direct-cycle gas-turbine applications.

The alkali metals, in particular, have excellent heat-transfer properties and extremely low vapor pressures at temperatures of interest for power generation. Sodium is attractive because of its relatively low melting point (208°F or 98°C) and high heat-transfer coefficient. It is also abundant, commercially available in acceptable purity, and relatively inexpensive. It is not particularly corrosive, provided low oxygen concentration is maintained. Its nuclear properties are excellent for fast reactors. In the liquid-metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR), sodium in the primary loop collects the heat generated in the core and transfers it to a secondary sodium loop in the heat exchanger, from which it is carried to the steam generator in which water is boiled to make steam.

Plant balance

The nuclear chain reaction in the reactor core produces energy in the form of heat, as the fission fragments slow down and dissipate their kinetic energy in the fuel. This heat must be removed efficiently and at the same rate it is being generated in order to prevent overheating of the core and to transport the energy outside the core, where it can be converted to a convenient form for further utilization. The energy transferred to the coolant, as it flows past the fuel element, is stored in it in the form of sensible heat and pressure and is called the enthalpy of the fluid. In an electric power plant, the energy stored in the fuel is further converted to kinetic energy through a device called a prime mover which, in the case of nuclear reactors, is predominantly a steam turbine. Another conversion takes place in the electric generator, where kinetic energy is converted into electric power as the final energy form to be distributed to the consumers through the power grid and distribution system. See also Enthalpy; Generator; Prime mover; Steam turbine.

Fluid flow and hydrodynamics

Because heat removal must be accomplished as efficiently as possible, considerable attention must be given to fluid-flow and hydrodynamic characteristics of the system. See also Fluid flow; Hydrodynamics.

The heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the fluid at the temperature of operation have a fundamental effect upon the design of the reactor system. The heat capacity determines the mass flow of the coolant required. The fluid properties (thermal conductivity, viscosity, density, and specific heat) are important in determining the surface area required for the fuel—in particular, the number and arrangement of the fuel elements. These factors combine to establish the pumping characteristics of the system because the pressure drop and coolant temperature rise in the core are directly related. See also Conduction (heat); Heat capacity; Viscosity.

Thermal stress

The temperature of the reactor coolant increases as it circulates through the reactor core. Fluctuations in power level or in coolant flow rate result in variations in the temperature rise. A reactor is capable of very rapid changes in power level, particularly reduction in power level, which is a safety feature of the plant. Reactors are equipped with mechanisms (reactor scram systems) to ensure rapid shutdown of the system in the event of leaks, failure of power conversion systems, or other operational abnormalities. Therefore, reactor coolant systems must be designed to accommodate the temperature transients that may occur because of rapid power changes. In addition, they must be designed to accommodate temperature transients that might occur as a result of a coolant system malfunction, such as pump stoppage.

Coolant system components

The development of reactor systems has led to the development of special components for reactor component systems. Because of the hazard of radioactivity, leak-tight systems and components are a prerequisite to safe, reliable operation, and maintenance. Special problems are introduced by many of the fluids employed as reactor coolants.

More extensive component developments have been required for sodium, which is chemically active and is an extremely poor lubricant. Centrifugal pumps employing unique bearings and seals have been specially designed. Sodium is an excellent electrical conductor and, in some special cases, electromagnetic-type pumps have been used. These pumps are completely sealed, contain no moving parts, and derive their pumping action from electromagnetic forces imposed directly on the fluid. See also Centrifugal pump; Electromagnetic pump.

Core design

A typical reactor core for a power reactor consists of the fuel element rods supported by a grid-type structure inside a vessel.

Structural materials employed in reactor systems must possess suitable nuclear and physical properties and must be compatible with the reactor coolant under the conditions of operation. The most common structural materials employed in reactor systems are stainless steel and zirconium alloys. Zirconium alloys have favorable nuclear and physical properties, whereas stainless steel has favorable physical properties. Aluminum is widely used in low-temperature test and research reactors; zirconium and stainless steel are used in high-temperature power reactors. Zirconium is relatively expensive, and its use is therefore confined to applications in the reactor core where neutron absorption is important. See also Aluminum; Stainless steel; Zirconium.

Reactors maintain a separation of fuel and coolant by cladding the fuel. The cladding is designed to prevent the release of radioactivity from the fuel. The cladding material must be compatible with both the fuel and the coolant.

The cladding materials must also have favorable nuclear properties. The neutron-capture cross section is most significant because the unwanted absorption of neutrons by these materials reduces the efficiency of the nuclear fission process. Aluminum is a very desirable material in this respect; however, its physical strength and corrosion resistance in water decrease very rapidly above about 300°F (149°C).

Zirconium has favorable neutron properties, and in addition is corrosion-resistant in high-temperature water. It has found extensive use in water-cooled power reactors. Stainless steel is used for the fuel cladding in fast reactors, in some light-water reactors for which neutron captures are less important.

Control

A reactor is critical when the rate of production of neutrons equals the rate of absorption in the system. The control of reactors requires the continuing measurement and adjustment of the critical condition. The neutrons are produced by the fission process and are consumed in a variety of ways, including absorption to cause fission, nonfission capture in fissionable materials, capture in fertile materials, capture in structure or coolant, and leakage from the reactor to the shielding. A reactor is subcritical (power level decreasing) if the number of neutrons produced is less than the number consumed. The reactor is supercritical (power level increasing) if the number of neutrons produced exceeds the number consumed. See also Reactor physics.

Reactors are controlled by adjusting the balance between neutron production and neutron consumption. Normally, neutron consumption is controlled by varying the absorption or leakage of neutrons; however, the neutron generation rate also can be controlled by varying the amount of fissionable material in the system.

The reactor control system requires the movement of neutron-absorbing rods (control rods) in the reactor under carefully controlled conditions. They must be arranged to increase reactivity (increase neutron population) slowly and under good control. They must be capable of reducing reactivity, both rapidly and slowly.

The control drives can be operated by the reactor operator or by automatic control systems. Reactor scram (rapid reactor shutdown) can be initiated automatically by a wide variety of system scram-safety signals, or it can be started by the operator depressing a scram button in the control room.

Control drives are electromechanical or hydraulic devices that impart in-and-out motion to the control rods. They are usually equipped with a relatively slow-speed reversible drive system for normal operational control. Scram is usually effected by a high-speed overriding drive accompanied by disconnecting the main drive system.

Applications

Reactor applications include mobile, stationary, and packaged power plants; production of fissionable fuels (plutonium and uranium-233) for military and commercial applications; research, testing, teaching-demonstration, and experimental facilities; space and process heat; dual-purpose design; and special applications. The potential use of reactor radiation or radioisotopes produced for sterilization of food and other products, steam for chemical processes, and gas for high-temperature applications has been recognized. See also Nuclear fuel cycle; Nuclear fuels reprocessing; Radioactivity and radiation applications; Ship nuclear propulsion.

A device in which the energy released by the fission of nuclei of uranium or another element is used to produce steam to run an electrical generator or other device.

A facility in which fissile material is used in a self-supporting chain reaction (nuclear fission) to produce heat and/or radiation for both practical application and research and development.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

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Nuclear reactors are complex devices in which fissionable elements such as uranium, thorium, or plutonium are made to undergo a sustainable nuclear chain reaction.

This chain reaction releases energy in the form of radiation that (a) sustains the chain reaction; (b) transmutes (i.e., alters the nuclear characteristics of) nearby atoms, including the nuclear fuel itself; and (c) may be harvested as heat. Transmutation in nuclear reactors of the common but weakly fissionable nuclide uranium-238 (²³⁸U) into plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu) is an important source of explosive material for nuclear weapons, and heat from nuclear reactors is used to generate approximately 16 percent of the world's electricity and to propel submarines, aircraft carriers, and some other military vessels. Nuclear reactors have also been used on satellites and proposed as power sources for locomotives, aircraft, and rockets.

How a nuclear reactor works. A nuclear reactor exploits the innate instability of some atoms—in general, those that have a large atomic number or that contain an imbalance of protons and neutrons—which break apart (fission) at random times, releasing photons, neutrons, electrons, and alpha particles. For some nuclides (atomic species having a specific number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus), the average wait until a given atom spontaneously fissions is shorter. When enough atoms of such an unstable isotope are packed close together, the neutrons released by fissioning atoms are more likely to strike the nuclei of nearby unstable atoms. These may fission at once, releasing still more neutrons, which may trigger still other fission events, and so forth. This is the chain reaction on which nuclear reactors and fission-type nuclear bombs depend. In a reactor, however, the fission rate is approximately constant, whereas in a bomb it grows exponentially, consuming most of the fissionable material in a small fraction of a second.

To produce a sustained chain reaction rather than a nuclear explosion, a reactor must not pack its fissionable atoms too closely together. They are therefore mixed with less-fissionable atoms that do not sustain the chain reaction. For example, in a reactor utilizing²³⁵U as its primary fuel, only 3 percent of the fuel is actually²³⁵U; the rest is mostly²³⁸U, a much less fissionable isotope of uranium. The higher the ratio of active fuel atoms to inert atoms in a given fuel mix, the more "enriched" the fuel is said to be; commercial nuclear power plant fuel is enriched only 3 to 5 percent²³⁵U, and so cannot explode. For a fission bomb, 90 percent enrichment would be typical (although bombs could be made with less-enriched uranium). Naval nuclear reactors, discussed further below, have used fuels enriched to between 20 and 93 percent.

Having diluted its active fuel component (e.g.,²³⁵U), a typical nuclear reactor must compensate by assuring that the neutrons produced by this diluted fuel can keep the chain reaction going. This is done, in most reactors, by embedding the fuel as small chunks or "fuel elements" in a matrix of a material termed a "moderator." The moderator's function is to slow (moderate) neutrons emitted by fissioning atoms in the fuel. Paradoxically, a slow neutron is more likely to trigger fission in a uranium, plutonium, or thorium nucleus than a fast neutron; a moderator, by slowing most neutrons before allowing them to strike nuclei, thus increases the probability that each neutron will contribute to sustaining the chain reaction. Graphite (a form of pure carbon), water, heavy water (deuterium dioxide or²H₂), and zirconium hydride can all be used as moderators. Ordinary water is the most commonly used moderator.

If the chain reaction sustained by a nuclear reactor produces enough heat to damage the reactor itself, that heat must be carried off constantly by a gas or liquid as long as the reactor is operating. Once removed from the reactor, this energy may be ejected into the environment as waste heat or used, in part, to generate electricity. (Electricity, if generated, is an intermediate energy form; all the energy generated in a nuclear reactor or other power plant eventually winds up in the environment as heat.) In the case of a nuclear-powered rocket, such as the one the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) seeks to develop with its Project Phoenix, heat is removed from the system by ejected propellant. Liquid sodium, pressurized water, boiling water, and helium have all been used as cooling media for nuclear reactors, with pressurized or boiling water being used by commercial nuclear power plants. Typically, heat energy removed from the reactor is first turned into kinetic energy by using hot gas or water vapor to drive turbines (essentially enclosed, high-speed windmills), then into electrical energy by using the turbines to turn generators.

Nuclear power sources that do not produce enough heat to melt themselves, and which therefore require no circulating coolant, have been used on some space probes and satellites, both U.S. and Russian. Such a power source, termed a radioactive thermoelectric generator or RTG, consists of a mass of highly radioactive material, usually plutonium, that radiates enough heat to allow the generation of a modest but steady flow of electricity via the thermoelectric effect. The efficiency of an RTG is low but its reliability is very high.

Reactor byproducts. The neutron flow inside a reactor bombards, and by bombarding changes, the nuclei of many atoms in the reactor. The longer a unit of nuclear fuel remains in a reactor, therefore, the more altered nuclei it contains. Most of the new atoms formed are radioactive nuclides such as cesium-144 or ruthenium-106; a significant number are, if²³⁸U is present, isotopes of plutonium, mostly 239Pu. (Absorption of one neutron by a 238U nucleus turns it into a²³⁹Pu nucleus; absorption of one, two, or three neutrons by a²³⁹Pu nucleus turns it into a²⁴⁰Pu,²⁴¹Pu, or²⁴²Pu nucleus.) Plutonium is found in nature only in trace amounts, but is present in all spent nuclear fuel containing²³⁸U. If it is extracted for use as a reactor fuel or a bomb material, it is considered a useful by-product of the nuclear reactor; otherwise, it is a waste product. In either case, plutonium is highly toxic and radioactive, and remains so for tens of thousands of years unless it is further transmuted by particle bombardment, as in a particle accelerator, reactor, or nuclear explosion. Reactors specially designed to turn otherwise inert²³⁸U into²³⁹Pu by neutron bombardment are termed fast breeder reactors, and can produce more nuclear fuel than they consume; however, all nuclear reactors, whether designed to "breed" or not, produce plutonium.

This fact has a basic military consequence: Every nation that possesses a nuclear power plant produces plutonium, which can be used to build atomic bombs. Plutonium sufficiently pure to be used in a bomb is termed bomb-grade or weapons-grade plutonium, and the process of extracting plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel is termed reprocessing. (The alloy used in sophisticated nuclear weapons is nearly pure plutonium, but the U.S. Department of Energy has estimated that an unwieldy bomb could be made with material that is only 15 to 25 percent plutonium, with less-unwieldy bombs being possible with more-enriched alloys.) Every nation that possesses a nuclear reactor and reprocessing capability thus possesses most of what it needs to build nuclear weapons. Several nations, including India and Pakistan, have in fact built nuclear weapons using plutonium reprocessed from "peaceful" nuclear-reactor programs. A large (100 MW electric) nuclear power plant produces enough plutonium for several dozen bombs a year.

Besides producing plutonium that can, and sometimes is, extracted to produce nuclear weapons, every nuclear reactor has the feature that if bombed, its radioactive contents could be released into the environment, greatly amplifying the destructive effects of a wartime or terrorist attack. Nuclear reactors thus have a two-edged aspect: as producers, potentially, of weapons for use against an enemy, and as weapons, if attacked, for an enemy.

Naval nuclear reactors. The primary military use of nuclear reactors, apart from the production of material for nuclear weapons, is the propulsion of naval vessels. Nuclear power sources enable naval vessels to remain at sea for long periods without refueling; modern replacement cores for aircraft carriers are designed to last at least 50 years without refueling, while those for submarines are designed to last 30 to 40 years. In the case of submarines, nuclear power also makes it possible to remain submerged for months at a time without having to surface for oxygen. Furthermore, reactors have the general design advantage of high power density, that is, they provide high power output while consuming relatively little shipboard space. A large nuclear-powered vessel may be propelled by more than one reactor; the U.S. aircraft carrier USS Enterprise, launched in 1960, is powered by eight reactors. Britain, France, China, and Russia (formerly the Soviet Union) have also built nuclear-powered submarines and other vessels.

Although the design details of the nuclear reactors used on submarines and aircraft carriers are secret, they are known to differ in several ways from the large land-based reactors typically used for generating electricity. The primary difference is that in order to achieve high power density, naval reactors use more-highly-enriched fuel. Older designs used uranium enriched to at least 93 percent 235U; later Western reactors have used uranium enriched to only 20 to 25 percent, while Russian reactors have used fuels enriched to up to 45 percent. Small quantities of ex-Soviet submarine fuel have appeared on the global black market; larger quantities could be used as a bomb material.

The first nuclear-powered vessel, was a U.S. submarine launched in 1955, the USS Nautilus. Only three civil vessels (one U.S.-made, one German, and one Japanese) have ever been propelled by nuclear power; all proved too expensive to operate. About 160 nuclear-powered ships, mostly military, are presently at sea; at the peak of the Cold War, there were approximately 250.

Further Reading

Books

Glasstone, Samuel, and Alexander Sesonske. Nuclear Reactor Engineering. Vol. I: Reactor Design Basics. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1994.

Todreas, Neil E., and Mujid S. Kazimi. Nuclear Systems I: Thermal Hydraulic Fundamentals. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1990.

(DOD) A facility in which fissile material is used in a self-supporting chain reaction (nuclear fission) to produce heat and/or radiation for both practical application and research and development.