Moctezuma, also known as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (c. 1466 – 1520), was an Aztec ruler ("huey tlatoani"
of Tenochtitlan), leader of the Aztec Triple
Alliance from c. 1502–1520. He is known for being the ruler of
the Aztec empire at the beginning of the Spanish conquest of
Mexico.
The portrayal of Moctezuma in history has mostly been colored by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, and many sources
describe him as weak-willed and indecisive. The general biases of the historical sources make it difficult to ascertain anything
definitive about his role during the Spanish invasion, and this has led to some controversy as to how to most accurately portray
him. Recently historians have pointed to Moctezuma's many architectural, scientific, military and spiritual projects as evidence
of a strong and industrious ruler.
Name
The original Nahuatl form of his name was pronounced [motekʷˈsoːma]. It is a compound of a noun meaning "lord" and
a verb meaning "to frown in anger", and so is interpreted as "he is one who frowns like a lord,"[1] "he who is angry in a noble manner,"[2] or "he who angers himself."[3] It has been written with a wide variety of spellings, the most common of which today is
Moctezuma.
The use of a regnal number is only for modern distinction from the first
Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I, because even if the latter was the great grandparent
of the former, there was no dynastic succession among the Aztecs. The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin,
while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma "Old Moctezuma". Xocoyotzin,
pronounced [ʃokoˈjotsin], means "honored young one".
The sources of Moctezuma's biography
The descriptions of the life of Moctezuma are full of contradictions, and thus nothing is known for certain about his
personality and rule. These contradictions are apparently the result of various biases. Spanish conquistadors such as
Bernal Diaz del Castillo and Hernan
Cortés depict Moctezuma as a harsh and fickle-minded ruler, perhaps attempting to justify deposing him in humanitarian
terms. The Florentine Codex, made by Bernardino
de Sahagún and his native informants of Tenochtitlan-subjugated Tlatelolco,
generally portrays Tlatelolco and Tlatelolcan rulers in a favorable light relative to the Tenocha, and Moctezuma in particular is
depicted unfavorably as a weak-willed, superstitious and indulgent ruler.(Restall 2003) Historian James Lockhart suggests that
the people needed to have a scapegoat for the Aztec defeat, and Moctezuma naturally fell into that role.
Romero Vargas Iturbide's study entitled "Moctezuma el Magnifico" criticized the accounts of Bernal Diaz del Castillo and
Hernan Cortes as biased while highlighting Moctezuma's virtues. As Aztec ruler, he expanded the Aztec Empire the most; warfare
expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas
and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. He elaborated the Templo Mayor and revolutionized the tribute system. He also increased Tenochtitlán's power
over its allied cities to a dominant position in the Aztec Triple Alliance. He
created a special temple, dedicated to the gods of the conquered towns, inside the temple of Huitzilopochtli. He also built a monument dedicated to the Tlatoani Tízoc.
The depiction of Moctezuma in early post-conquest literature
Most of the post-conquest literature describes the personality of Moctezuma as more that of a scholar (tlamatini) than a warrior.
It is said that he was a priest and the head of the calmecac, the school of the upper
classes.
Legend says he did not want to be a tlatoani and that after he was elected in 1502,
messengers were sent everywhere to look for him. They found him cleaning a temple, hiding from the messengers. [citation needed]
He is said to have dismissed most of the authorities and replaced them with his former students, continuing to give them
lessons as if they were still his students. [citation needed]
In another tale, when Moctezuma took some corn from a field, an angry peasant reminded him that he was forbidden to do so.
Surprised by this, Moctezuma decided to elevate the macechualli to a higher rank. The treatment he gave to the commoner in
this case contrasts with the prohibitions he imposed on the pipiltin (upper classes). [citation needed]
Some of the Aztec stories about Moctezuma describe him as being fearful of the Spanish newcomers, and some sources, such as
the Florentine codex, comment that the Aztecs believed the Spaniards to be gods and
Cortés to be the returned god Quetzalcoatl. The
veracity of this belief is inordinately difficult to ascertain, and sometimes regarded as apocryphal (Restall 2003). Much of the
idea of Cortés being seen as a deity can be traced back to the Florentine Codex written down some 50 years after the conquest. In
the codex' description of the first meeting between Moctezuma and Cortés, the Aztec ruler is described as giving a prepared
speech in classical oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which as described verbatim in the codex (written by Sahagún's Tlatelolcan
informants who were probably not eyewitnesses of the meeting) included such prostrate declarations of divine or near-divine
admiration as, "You have graciously come on earth, you have graciously approached your water, your high place of Mexico, you
have come down to your mat, your throne, which I have briefly kept for you, I who used to keep it for you," and, "You have
graciously arrived, you have known pain, you have known weariness, now come on earth, take your rest, enter into your palace,
rest your limbs; may our lords come on earth." Subtleties in, and an imperfect scholarly understanding of, high Nahuatl
rhetorical style make the exact intent of these comments tricky to ascertain, but Restall argues that Moctezuma politely offering
his throne to Cortés (if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may well have been meant as the exactly opposite of what
it was taken to mean: politeness in Aztec culture was a way to assert dominance and show superiority. This speech, which has been
widely referred to, has been a factor in the widespread belief that Moctezuma was addressing Cortés as the returning god
Quetzalcoatl. Other parties have also propagated the idea that the Native Americans believed the conquistadors to be gods: most
notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Geronimo Mendieta(Martínez 1980). Some Franciscans at this time held millennarian beliefs (Phelan 1956) and the natives taking the Spanish conquerors for gods was an idea
that went well with this theology. Bernardino de Sahagún, who compiled the
Florentine Codex, was also a Franciscan.
Mythical accounts of omens and Moctezuma's superstition
Bernardino de Sahagún (1499-1590) mentions eight events, occurring prior to the
arrival of the Spanish, which were interpreted as signs of a possible disaster, e.g. a comet, the burning of a temple, a crying
ghostly woman, and others. Some speculate that the Aztecs were particularly susceptible to such ideas of doom and disaster
because the particular year in which the Spanish arrived coincided with a "tying of years" ceremony at the end of a 52-year cycle
in the Aztec calendar, which in Aztec belief was linked to changes, rebirth and dangerous events.
An account by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc (1598) records a story of how
Moctezuma sent emissaries to find the legendary wizard and prophet, Huemac, who, according to
legend, had predicted the arriving of Quetzalcoatl one thousand years before. Moctezuma
wanted to ask Huemac for protection and to be his servant, so that he could avert the catastrophe predicted by these omens. Three
times Moctezuma sent emissaries, and three times Huemac refused. Huemac recommended instead that Moctezuma abandon all luxuries,
the flowers and the perfumes, make penance and eat the same food as peasants, drink only boiled
water, and then maybe he would help him. To his anguish, Moctezuma was unable to obey the commandment. These legends are a part
of the post-conquest rationalisation by the Aztecs of their defeat and show Moctezuma as indecisive, vain, and superstitious and
ultimately the cause of the fall of the Aztec Empire.
Contact with the Spanish
- Also see: Hernan Cortés, Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Siege of
Tenochtitlan
Meeting place of Moctezuma and Hernán Cortés.
Moctezumas first interactions with the Spanish
In 1517, Moctezuma received first reports of Europeans landing on the east coast of his empire;
this was the expedition of Juan de Grijalva who had landed on San Juan Ulúa, which although within Totonac territory was under the
auspices of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma ordered that he be informed of any new sightings of foreigners at the coast and posted
extra watch.
This meant that when the expedition of Cortés arrived in 1519 Moctezuma was immediately informed and he sent emissaries to
meet the newcomers, one of them known to be an Aztec noble named Tentlil in the Nahuatl language but referred to in the writings
of Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo as "Tendile".
As the Spaniards approached Tenochtitlan they made an alliance with the Tlaxcalteca who were enemies of the Aztec Triple
Alliance and they helped instigate revolt in many towns under Aztec dominion. Moctezuma of course was aware of this and he sent
gifts to the Spaniards, probably in order to show his superiority to the Spaniards and Tlaxcalteca. (Restall 2003)
On November 8, 1519, Moctezuma met Hernán Cortés on the
causeway leading into Mexico Tenochtitlan and the two leaders exchanged gifts. Moctezuma gave Cortés the gift of an Aztec
calender, one disc of crafted gold and another of silver. Cortés later melted these down for their material value.
The Spanish used Moctezuma as a puppet leader to gain control of the Aztec Empire.
Moctezuma as host and prisoner of the Spaniards
Moctezuma brought Cortés to his palace where the Spaniards lived as his guests for several months. Moctezuma continued
governing his empire and even undertook conquests of new territory during the Spaniard's stay at Tenochtitlan. However, at some
time during that period Moctezuma became a prisoner in his own house. Exactly why this happened is not clear from the extant
sources. But the Aztec nobility grew displeased with the large Spanish army staying in Tenochtitlan, and Moctezuma told Cortés
that it would be best if they left. Shortly thereafter Cortés left to fight Panfilo de
Narvaez and during his absence the massacre in the main
temple turned the tense situation between the Spaniards and Aztecs into direct hostilities, and Moctezuma became a hostage
used by the Spaniards to assure their security.
The death of Moctezuma
In the subsequent battles with the Spaniards after Cortés' return, Moctezuma was killed. The details of his death are unknown:
different versions of his demise are given by different sources.
In his Historia, Bernal Díaz del Castillo states that on
July 1, 1520, the Spanish forced Moctezuma to appear on the balcony
of his palace, appealing to his countrymen to retreat. The people were appalled by their emperor's complicity and pelted him with
rocks and darts. He died a short time after that. There are quite different meanings about his death. Bernal Díaz gives this
account:
Montezuma was hit by three stones, one on the head, one on the arm, and one on the leg; and though they begged him to have his
wounds dressed and eat some food and spoke very kindly to him, he refused. Then quite unexpectedly we were told that he was
dead.
Cortés similarly reported that Moctezuma died wounded by a stone thrown by his countrymen.
On the other hand, the indigenous accounts claim that Moctezuma was killed by the Spanish prior to their leaving the city.
For example, according to Father Sahagun's Tlatelolcan informants, Alvarado "garrotted all
the nobles he had in power", and Moctezuma's body was found in the street with sword wounds three days after the killings.
In the Ramirez Codex, an anonymous account by a Christianized Aztec, the Spanish priests are criticized for searching for gold rather than
administering the Last Rites.
Some modern scholars, such as Matthew Restall (2003), have preferred the indigenous accounts over the Spanish ones. They
surmise that the Spanish killed Moctezuma once his inability to pacifying the Aztec people had made him useless.
Aftermath
The Spaniards were forced to flee the city and they took refuge in Tlaxcala, and signed a treaty with them to conquer
Tenochtitlan, offering to the Tlaxcalans freedom from any kind of tribute and the control of Tenochtitlan.
Moctezuma was then succeeded by his brother Cuitláhuac, who died shortly after during a
smallpox epidemic. He was succeeded by his adolescent nephew, Cuauhtémoc. During the siege of the city, the sons of Moctezuma were murdered by the Aztec, possibly because
they wanted to surrender. By the following year, the Aztec empire had entirely succumbed to the Spanish. After the conquest,
Moctezuma's daughter, Techichpotzin, was considered the heiress to the king's wealth
following Spanish customs and given the name "Isabel". She was married to different conquistadors who laid claim to the heritage
of the Aztec emperor. The title Moctezuma still is the name of a Spanish house.
![Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire through conquest. The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the colour green.[4]](http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/thumb/1/1f/550px-Aztecexpansion.png)
Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire through conquest. The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the colour
green.
[4]
Moctezuma's legacy
The epic story of Moctezuma the last leader of the Aztec Empire has captivated the thoughts of many people causing the ruler's
name to gain wide recognition and use as a symbol in different contexts.
In Native American mythology and folklore
Many Native American peoples are reported to worship deities named after the aztec ruler, and often a part of the myth is that
someday the deified Moctezuma shall return to vindicate his people.
In Mexico the modern day Pames, the Otomi,
Tepehua, Totonac and Nahua peoples are reported to worship earth deities named after Moctezuma.[5]
The name also appears in Tzotzil maya ritual in Zinacantán where dancers dressed as a raingod
are called "Montezumas"[6]
A mythological figure of the Tohono O'odham[7] people of Northern Mexico and some Pueblo
people of New Mexico and Arizona by the name Montezuma, can possibly be
traced back to the Aztec ruler.
Bancroft, writing in the 19th century (Native Races vol 3), speculates
that the name of the historical Aztec Emperors Moctezuma had been used to refer to a combination of different cultural heroes who
were united under the name of a particularly salient representative of Native American identity.
Other references among the Arizona and New Mexico tribes indicate a belief in "Montezuma" as having been the name of a great
king and law-giver of the remote past, who ruled over a vast empire including Mexico, and who was said to be buried inside a
particular mountain in Arizona that allegedly bears his image.
Symbol of indigenous leadership
As a symbol of resistance towards Spanish the name of Moctezuma has been invoked in several indigenous rebellions. For example
in the rebellion of the Virgin Cult in Chiapas in 1721 where the
followers of the Virgin Mary rebelled against the Spanish after having been told by an apparition of the virgin that Moctezuma
would be resucitated to assist them against their Spanish oppressors. In the Quisteil rebellion
of the Yucatec Maya in 1761 the rebel leader
Jacinto Canek reportedly called himself "Little Montezuma".[8]
Spanish noble family
The grandson of Montezuma II, Ihuitemotzin, baptised Diego Luís de Moctezuma, was brought to
Spain by King Philip II. There he married a Spanish woman named Francisca de la Cueva
de Valenzuela. In 1627, their son Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma was given the title of 1st Count of
Moctezuma de Tultengo, and thus became part of the Spanish nobility. One descendant of this
family was General Jerónimo Girón y Moctezuma, commander of the Spanish forces at the Battle of Mobile (1781). Montezuma's daughter, Princess Xipaguacin Moctezuma, married Juan de
Grau, Baron of Toleriu, presumably one of Cortez's senior officers, who took her back to Spain where she died in the Mountain
village of Toleriu, not far from Andorra, in 1537
References to Moctezuma in modern culture
- The conquest of the Aztecs is recounted in a song by Neil Young called
Cortez the Killer from the album Zuma, a tribute to Moctezuma who appears in the song as a wise and benevolent ruler.
Notes
- ^ Andrews, J. Richard [1975] (2003). Introduction to Classical Nahuatl, Revised Edition, Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 599.
- ^ Brinton, Daniel G. (1890). Ancient Nahuatl Poetry.
- ^ Thomas, Hugh (1995). Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico.
- ^ Based on the maps by Ross Hassig in "Aztec Warfare"
- ^ Gillespie 1989:165-66
- ^ Bricker,1981:138-9
- ^ Another telling of the Tohono O'odham legend, dated to 1883
- ^ Bricker,1981:73
References
- Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-516077-0
- Hassig, Ross; Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
1988.
- Lockhart, James, ed., tr. We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. University of California Press,
1993
- John Ledy Phelan, The Millenian Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World (1956)
- Jose Luis Martínez, Gerónimo de Mendieta (1980), in Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl vol 14, UNAM, Mexico pp131-197
- Townsend, Richard F. (2000) The Aztecs. revised ed. Thames and Hudson, New York.
- Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya,
and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica, 3rd ed., San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN
0-01-263999-0.
See also
External links
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