Meditation

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Definition

Meditation is a practice of concentrated focus upon a sound, object, visualization, the breath, movement, or attention itself in order to increase awareness of the present moment, reduce stress, promote relaxation, and enhance personal and spiritual growth.

Description

Meditation techniques have been practiced for millennia. Originally, they were intended to develop spiritual understanding, awareness, and direct experience of ultimate reality. The many different religious traditions in the world have given rise to a rich variety of meditative practices. These include the contemplative practices of Christian religious orders, the Buddhist practice of sitting meditation, and the whirling movements of the Sufi dervishes. Although meditation is an important spiritual practice in many religious and spiritual traditions, it can be practiced by anyone regardless of their religious or cultural background to relieve stress and pain.

As Western medical practitioners begin to understand the mind's role in health and disease, there has been more interest in the use of meditation in medicine. Meditative practices are increasingly offered in medical clinics and hospitals as a tool for improving health and quality of life. Meditation has been used as the primary therapy for treating certain diseases; as an additional therapy in a comprehensive treatment plan; and as a means of improving the quality of life of people with debilitating, chronic, or terminal illnesses.

Sitting meditation is generally done in an upright seated position, either in a chair or cross-legged on a cushion on the floor. The spine is straight yet relaxed. Sometimes the eyes are closed. Other times the eyes are open and gazing softly into the distance or at an object. Depending on the type of meditation, the meditator may be concentrating on the sensation of the movement of the breath, counting the breath, silently repeating a sound, chanting, visualizing an image, focusing awareness on the center of the body, opening to all sensory experiences including thoughts, or performing stylized ritual movements with the hands.

Movement meditation can be spontaneous and freeform or involve highly structured, choreographed, repetitive patterns. Movement meditation is particularly helpful for those people who find it difficult to remain still.

Generally speaking, there are two main types of meditation. These types are concentration meditation and mindfulness meditation. Concentration meditation practices involve focusing attention on a single object. Objects of meditation can include the breath, an inner or external image, a movement pattern (as in tai chi or yoga), or a sound, word, or phrase that is repeated silently (mantra). The purpose of concentrative practices is to learn to focus one's attention or develop concentration. When thoughts or emotions arise, the meditator gently directs the mind back to the original object of concentration.

Mindfulness meditation practices involve becoming aware of the entire field of attention. The meditator is instructed to be aware of all thoughts, feelings, perceptions or sensations as they arise in each moment. Mindfulness meditation practices are enhanced by the meditator's ability to focus and quiet the mind. Many meditation practices are a blend of these two forms.

The study and application of meditation to health care has focused on three specific approaches: 1. transcendental meditation (TM); 2. The "relaxation response," a general approach to meditation developed by Dr. Herbert Benson; and 3. mindfulness meditation, specifically the program of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn.

TM has its origins in the Vedic tradition of India and was introduced to the West by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. TM has been taught to somewhere between two and four million people. It is one of the most widely practiced forms of meditation in the West. TM has been studied many times; these studies have produced much of the information about the physiology of meditation. In TM, the meditator sits with closed eyes and concentrates on a single syllable or word (mantra) for 20 minutes at a time, twice a day. When thoughts or feelings arise, the attention is brought back to the mantra. According to Charles Alexander, an important TM researcher, "During TM, ordinary waking mental activity is said to settle down, until even the subtlest thought is transcended and a completely unified wholeness of awareness…is experienced. In this silent, self-referential state of pure wakefulness, consciousness is fully awake to itself alone…" TM supporters believe that TM practices are more beneficial than other meditation practices.

The relaxation response involves a similar form of mental focusing. Dr. Herbert Benson, one of the first Western doctors to conduct research on the effects of meditation, developed this approach after observing the profound health benefits of a state of bodily calm he calls "the relaxation response." In order to elicit this response in the body, he teaches patients to focus upon the repetition of a word, sound, prayer, phrase, or movement activity (including swimming, jogging, yoga, and even knitting) for 10–20 minutes at a time, twice a day. Patients are also taught not to pay attention to distracting thoughts and to return their focus to the original repetition. The choice of the focused repetition is up to the individual. Instead of Sanskrit terms, the meditator can choose what is personally meaningful, such as a phrase from a Christian or Jewish prayer.

Mindfulness meditation comes out of traditional Buddhist meditation practices. Psychologist Jon Kabat-Zinn has been instrumental in bringing this form of meditation into medical settings. In formal mindfulness practice, the meditator sits with eyes closed, focusing the attention on the sensations and movement of the breath for approximately 45–60 minutes at a time, at least once a day. Informal mindfulness practice involves bringing awareness to every activity in daily life. Wandering thoughts or distracting feelings are simply noticed without resisting or reacting to them. The essence of mindfulness meditation is not what one focuses on but rather the quality of awareness the meditator brings to each moment. According to Kabat-Zinn, "It is this investigative, discerning observation of whatever comes up in the present moment that is the hallmark of mindfulness and differentiates it most from other forms of meditation. The goal of mindfulness is for you to be more aware, more in touch with life and whatever is happening in your own body and mind at the time it is happening—that is, the present moment." The MBSR program consists of a series of classes involving meditation, movement, and group process. There are

over 240 MBSR programs offered in health care settings around the world.

Meditation is not considered a medical procedure or intervention by most insurers. Many patients pay for meditation training themselves. Frequently, religious groups or meditation centers offer meditation instruction free of charge or for a nominal donation. Hospitals may offer MBSR classes at a reduced rate for their patients and a slightly higher rate for the general public.

— Linda Chrisman

Dictionary: med·i·ta·tion  (mĕd'ĭ-tā'shən)

1. 1. The act or process of meditating.
   2. A devotional exercise of or leading to contemplation.
2. A contemplative discourse, usually on a religious or philosophical subject.

Meditation as covered by this entry refers primarily to Buddhist meditation, that is the set of techniques within Buddhism known by the Sanskrit term bhāvanā and its cognates. These techniques are varied, and mostly involve both ‘mind’ and ‘body’ in Western terms. Thus ‘mental’ imagery may be used to affect the ‘body’, and ‘bodily’ techniques such as breath control may be employed to calm or direct the ‘mind’. All these techniques have come to be known in modern English as ‘meditation’, while equivalent techniques in Hinduism are more frequently referred to as yoga. In fact, present-day Hindu and Buddhist practices have many similarities, both going back to a common body of Indian ascetic procedures. The term ‘yoga’ is used within some Buddhist traditions, and some modern Hindu teachers use the term ‘meditation’ (e.g. the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's ‘transcendental meditation’). Related techniques are also found in East Asia (qigong, etc.), in Islam (among the Sūfis), and in Judaism and Christianity.

As with other aspects of Buddhism, one can make a general distinction between the Southern (Theravāda) schools (found today in Śrī Lanka and South-East Asia), the Northern schools (Tibet and Mongolia), and the Eastern Schools (China and East Asia). Theravādin Buddhist societies tend to use relatively simple methods, and place emphasis on breathing practices and body mindfulness. Codified by the fourth-to fifth-century author Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga, they were mostly not taught to lay people until modern times. Tibetan methods employ the full range of ‘Tantric’ yogic practices, involving complex imaginal transformations of the self and environment and the use of ritual formulae (mantra) and gestures (mudrā). Tibetan Tantra also includes procedures involving visualized and actual use of sexual intercourse, but these have never been common in Tibet or Mongolia, since most practitioners are monks and such practices are believed to require a very high degree of mind-body training for successful performance.

Tantric techniques are known in East Asia (e.g. Shingon in Japan), but the most common form of meditation in East Asia, known in Chinese as Ch'an (Japanese Zen), involves simple sitting for prolonged periods and, in some traditions, contemplation on paradoxical statements (Japanese kōan) ; both are intended to force a breakthrough to non-conceptual insight. While Theravādin meditation traditions were practised primarily in monastic and ascetic contexts until the growth of lay meditation centres in the twentieth century, Tibetan meditation has a longer tradition of lay involvement, going back to the early days of Buddhism in Tibet. East Asian traditions, which represent a synthesis of Buddhist and indigenous (Daoist, etc.) meditation tradition, have been incorporated to some degree into martial arts and other aspects of secular life, although the ‘Zen’ nature of Japanese flower-arranging, tea ceremonies, etc., has been exaggerated by Western popularizers.

Two terms widely used in both Theravādin and Tibetan contexts are śamatha (Pali samatha) and vipaśyanā (Pali vipassanā). They may be translated roughly as ‘calm meditation’ and ‘insight meditation’. Śamatha meditation is directed at the attainment of a series of mind-body states (dhyāna, Pali jhāna; also samādhi) characterized by calmness, reduction of involvement with sensory input, one-pointedness of mind, etc. Vipaśyanā is aimed at insight into the true nature of reality, ultimately leading to the duplication of the enlightenment or awakening (bodhi) of the historical Buddha. Śamatha is regarded as a necessary precursor to vipaśyanā, but it may also be practised for its own sake, since it is held to lead to the attainment of siddhi (psychic or magical powers).

Dominant forms of Theravāda meditation in the West today emphasize vipaśyanā and downplay śamatha, but monastic and recluse traditions in South-East Asia employ complex śamatha practices which are associated with the ascription of magical powers to highly-attained monk meditators. In the Tibetan context, śamatha and vipaśyanā are usually regarded as preliminary practices to Tantra. The contrast between the attainment of specific mind-body states and the attainment of insight into reality nevertheless forms part of Tantra too. There is a great elaboration of specific states associated with particular Tantric deities and practices, often intended to bring about specific this-worldly results (health, protection, prosperity).

Skilled meditators can undoubtedly develop a high level of conscious control over bodily processes (e.g. body temperature, breathing process). Indigenous theoretical models treat body-mind processes as aspects of a single whole, and may provide useful pointers to the direction a Western scientific understanding of these processes might take.

— Geoffrey Samuel

Bibliography

• Beyer, S. (1973). The Cult of Tārā: magic and ritual in Tibet. University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Nyanaponika, T. (1969). The heart of Buddhist meditation. Rider, London

See also Buddhism and the body; relaxation; religion and the body; yoga; Zen.

noun

The act or process of thinking: brainwork, cerebration, cogitation, contemplation, deliberation, excogitation, reflection, rumination, speculation, thought. See thoughts.

Definition

Meditation is a practice of concentrated focus upon a sound, object, visualization, the breath, movement, or attention itself in order to increase awareness of the present moment, reduce stress, promote relaxation, and enhance personal and spiritual growth.

Origins

Meditation techniques have been practiced for millennia. Originally, they were intended to develop spiritual understanding, awareness, and direct experience of ultimate reality. The many different religious traditions in the world have given rise to a rich variety of meditative practices. These include the contemplative practices of Christian religious orders, the Buddhist practice of sitting meditation, and the whirling movements of the Sufi dervishes. Although meditation is an important spiritual practice in many religious and spiritual traditions, it can be practiced by anyone regardless of their religious or cultural background to relieve stress and pain.

As Western medical practitioners begin to understand the mind's role in health and disease, there has been more interest in the use of meditation in medicine. Meditative practices are increasingly offered in medical clinics and hospitals as a tool for improving health and quality of life. Meditation has been used as the primary therapy for treating certain diseases; as an additional therapy in a comprehensive treatment plan; and as a means of improving the quality of life of people with debilitating, chronic, or terminal illnesses.

Benefits

Meditation benefits people with or without acute medical illness or stress. People who meditate regularly have been shown to feel less anxiety and depression. They also report that they experience more enjoyment and appreciation of life and that their relationships with others are improved. Meditation produces a state of deep relaxation and a sense of balance or equanimity. According to Michael J. Baime, "Meditation cultivates an emotional stability that allows the meditator to experience intense emotions fully while simultaneously maintaining perspective on them." Out of this experience of emotional stability, one may gain greater insight and understanding about one's thoughts, feelings, and actions. This insight in turn offers the possibility to feel more confident and in control of life. Meditation facilitates a greater sense of calmness, empathy, and acceptance of self and others.

Meditation can be used with other forms of medical treatment and is an important complementary therapy for both the treatment and prevention of many stress-related conditions. Regular meditation can reduce the number of symptoms experienced by patients with a wide range of illnesses and disorders. Based upon clinical evidence as well as theoretical understanding, meditation is considered to be one of the better therapies for panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, substance dependence and abuse, ulcers, colitis, chronic pain, psoriasis, and dysthymic disorder. It is considered to be a valuable adjunctive therapy for moderate hypertension (high blood pressure), prevention of cardiac arrest (heart attack), prevention of atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries), arthritis (including fibromyalgia), cancer, insomnia, migraine, and prevention of stroke. Meditation may also be a valuable complementary therapy for allergies and asthma because of the role stress plays in these conditions. Meditative practices have been reported to improve function or reduce symptoms in patients with some neurological disorders as well. These include people with Parkinson's disease, people who experience fatigue with multiple sclerosis, and people with epilepsy who are resistant to standard treatment.

Overall, a 1995 report to the National Institutes of Health on alternative medicine concluded that, "More than 30 years of research, as well as the experience of a large and growing number of individuals and health care providers, suggests that meditation and similar forms of relaxation can lead to better health, higher quality of life, and lowered health care costs." A study of health care professionals published in 2002 indicates that the majority of physicians, nurses, and occupational therapists in the United States accept meditation as a beneficial adjunct to conventional medical or surgical treatments.

Description

Sitting meditation is generally done in an upright seated position, either in a chair or cross-legged on a cushion on the floor. The spine is straight yet relaxed. Sometimes the eyes are closed. Other times the eyes are open and gazing softly into the distance or at an object. Depending on the type of meditation, the meditator may be concentrating on the sensation of the movement of the breath, counting the breath, silently repeating a sound, chanting, visualizing an image, focusing awareness on the center of the body, opening to all sensory experiences including thoughts, or performing stylized ritual movements with the hands.

Movement meditation can be spontaneous and free-form or involve highly structured, choreographed, repetitive patterns. Movement meditation is particularly helpful for those people who find it difficult to remain still.

Generally speaking, there are two main types of meditation. These types are concentration meditation and mindfulness meditation. Concentration meditation practices involve focusing attention on a single object. Objects of meditation can include the breath, an inner or external image, a movement pattern (as in tai chi or yoga), or a sound, word, or phrase that is repeated silently (mantra). The purpose of concentrative practices is to learn to focus one's attention or develop concentration. When thoughts or emotions arise, the meditator gently directs the mind back to the original object of concentration.

Mindfulness meditation practices involve becoming aware of the entire field of attention. The meditator is instructed to be aware of all thoughts, feelings, perceptions, or sensations as they arise in each moment. Mindfulness meditation practices are enhanced by the meditator's ability to focus and quiet the mind. Many meditation practices are a blend of these two forms.

The study and application of meditation to health care has focused on three specific approaches: 1. transcendental meditation (TM); 2. The "relaxation response," a general approach to meditation developed by Dr. Herbert Benson; and 3. mindfulness meditation, specifically the program of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn.

Transcendental Meditation

TM has its origins in the Vedic tradition of India and was introduced to the West by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. TM has been taught to somewhere between two and four million people. It is one of the most widely practiced forms of meditation in the West. TM has been studied many times; these studies have produced much of the information about the physiology of meditation. In TM, the meditator sits with closed eyes and concentrates on a single syllable or word (mantra) for 20 minutes at a time, twice a day. When thoughts or feelings arise, the attention is brought back to the mantra. According to Charles Alexander, an important TM researcher, "During TM, ordinary waking mental activity is said to settle down, until even the subtlest thought is transcended and a completely unified wholeness of awareness..is experienced. In this silent, self-referential state of pure wakefulness, consciousness is fully awake to itself alone.." TM supporters believe that TM practices are more beneficial than other meditation practices. A group of Australian researchers has recently recommended TM as a preventive strategy for heart disease.

The Relaxation Response

The relaxation response involves a similar form of mental focusing. Dr. Herbert Benson, one of the first Western doctors to conduct research on the effects of meditation, developed this approach after observing the profound health benefits of a state of bodily calm he calls "the relaxation response." In order to elicit this response in the body, he teaches patients to focus upon the repetition of a word, sound, prayer, phrase, or movement activity (including swimming, jogging, yoga, and even knitting) for 10–20 minutes at a time, twice a day. Patients are also taught not to pay attention to distracting thoughts and to return their focus to the original repetition. The choice of the focused repetition is up to the individual. Instead of Sanskrit terms, the meditator can choose what is personally meaningful, such as a phrase from a prayer.

Mindfulness Meditation

Mindfulness meditation comes out of traditional Buddhist meditation practices. Psychologist Jon Kabat-Zinn has been instrumental in bringing this form of meditation into medical settings. In formal mindfulness practice, the meditator sits with eyes closed, focusing the attention on the sensations and movement of the breath for approximately 45–60 minutes at a time, at least once a day. Informal mindfulness practice involves bringing awareness to every activity in daily life. Wandering thoughts or distracting feelings are simply noticed without resisting or reacting to them. The essence of mindfulness meditation is not what one focuses on but rather the quality of awareness the meditator brings to each moment. According to Kabat-Zinn, "It is this investigative, discerning observation of whatever comes up in the present moment that is the hallmark of mindfulness and differentiates it most from other forms of meditation. The goal of mindfulness is for you to be more aware, more in touch with life and whatever is happening in your own body and mind at the time it is happening—that is, the present moment." The MBSR program consists of a series of classes involving meditation, movement, and group process. There are over 240 MBSR programs offered in health care settings around the world.

Meditation is not considered a medical procedure or intervention by most insurers. Many patients pay for meditation training themselves. Frequently, religious groups or meditation centers offer meditation instruction free of charge or for a nominal donation. Hospitals may offer MBSR classes at a reduced rate for their patients and a slightly higher rate for the general public.

Precautions

Meditation appears to be safe for most people. There are, however, case reports and studies noting some adverse effects. Thirty-three to 50% of the people participating in long silent meditation retreats (two weeks to three months) reported increased tension, anxiety, confusion, and depression. On the other hand, most of these same people also reported very positive effects from their meditation practice. Kabat-Zinn notes that these studies fail to differentiate between serious psychiatric disturbances and normal emotional mood swings. These studies do suggest, however, that meditation may not be recommended for people with psychotic disorders, severe depression, and other severe personality disorders unless they are also receiving psychological or medical treatment.

Side Effects

There are no reported side effects from meditation except for positive benefits.

Research & General Acceptance

The scientific study of the physiological effects of meditation began in the early 1960s. These studies prove that meditation affects metabolism, the endocrine system, the central nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. In one study, three advanced practitioners of Tibetan Buddhist meditation practices demonstrated the ability to increase "inner heat" as much as 61%. During a different meditative practice they were able to dramatically slow down the rate at which their bodies consumed oxygen. Preliminary research shows that mindfulness meditation is associated with increased levels of melatonin. These findings suggest a potential role for meditation in the treatment and prevention of breast and prostrate cancer.

Despite the inherent difficulties in designing research studies, there is a large amount of evidence of the medical benefits of meditation. Meditation is particularly effective as a treatment for chronic pain. Studies have shown meditation reduces symptoms of pain and pain-related drug use. In a four-year follow-up study, the majority of patients in a MBSR program reported "moderate to great improvement" in pain as a result of participation in the program.

Meditation has long been recommended as a treatment for high blood pressure; however, there is a debate over the amount of benefit that meditation offers. Although most studies show a reduction in blood pressure with meditation, medication is still more effective at lowering high blood pressure.

Meditation may also be an effective treatment for coronary artery disease. A study of 21 patients practicing TM for eight months showed increases in their amount of exercise tolerance, amount of workload, and a delay in the onset of ST-segment depression. Meditation is also an important part of Dean Ornish's program, which has been proven to reverse coronary artery disease.

Research also suggests that meditation is effective in the treatment of chemical dependency. Gelderloos and others reviewed 24 studies and reported that all of them showed that TM is helpful in programs to stop smoking and also in programs for drug and alcohol abuse.

Studies also imply that meditation is helpful in reducing symptoms of anxiety and in treating anxiety-related disorders. Furthermore, a study in 1998 of 37 psoriasis patients showed that those practicing mindfulness meditation had more rapid clearing of their skin condition, with standard UV light treatment, than the control subjects. Another study found that meditation decreased the symptoms of fibromyalgia; over half of the patients reported significant improvement. Research by a group of ophthalmologists indicates that nearly 60% of a group of patients being treated for glaucoma found meditation helpful in coping with their eye disorder. In addition, meditation was one of several stress management techniques used in a small study of HIV-positive men. The study showed improvements in the T-cell counts of the men, as well as in several psychological measures of well-being.

Training & Certification

There is no program of certification or licensure for instructors who wish to teach meditation as a medical therapy. Meditation teachers within a particular religious tradition usually have extensive experience and expertise with faith questions and religious practices but may not have been trained to work with medical patients. Different programs have varied requirements for someone to teach meditation. In order to be recognized as an instructor of TM, one must receive extensive training. The Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care and Society at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center offers training and workshops for health professionals and others interested in teaching mindfulness-based stress reduction. The Center does not, however, certify that someone is qualified to teach meditation. The University of Pennsylvania program for Stress Management suggests that a person have at least 10 years of personal experience with the practice of mindfulness meditation before receiving additional instruction to teach meditation. Teachers are also expected to spend at least two weeks each year in intensive meditation retreats.

Resources

Books

Astin, John A., et al. "Meditation." In Clinician's Complete Reference to Complementary and Alternative Medicine, edited by Donald Novey. St. Louis: Mosby, 2000.

Baime, Michael J. "Meditation and Mindfulness." In Essentials of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, edited by Wayne B. Jonas and Jeffrey S. Levin. New York: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 1999.

Benson, Herbert, M.D. The Relaxation Response. New York: William Morrow, 1975.

Kabat-Zinn, John. Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Dell, 1990.

Roth, Robert. TM Transcendental Meditation: A New Introduction to Maharishi's Easy, Effective and Scientifically Proven Technique for Promoting Better Health. Donald I. Fine, 1994.

Periodicals

King, M. S., T. Carr, and C. D'Cruz. "Transcendental Meditation, Hypertension and Heart Disease." Australian Family Physician 31 (February 2002): 164–168.

Rhee, D. J., G. L. Spaeth, J. S. Myers, et al. "Prevalence of the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Glaucoma." Ophthalmology 109 (March 2002): 438–443.

Schoenberger, N. E., R. J. Matheis, S. C. Shiflett, and A. C. Cotter. "Opinions and Practices of Medical Rehabilitation Professionals Regarding Prayer and Meditation." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (February 2002): 59–69.

Organizations

Insight Meditation Society. 1230 Pleasant, St. Barre, MA 01005. (978) 355-4378. FAX: (978) 355-6398. .

Mind-Body Medical Institute. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. One Deaconess Road, Boston, MA 02215. (617) 632-9525. .

The Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care and Society. Stress Reduction Clinic. University of Massachusetts Memorial Health Care. 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655. (508) 856-2656. Fax (508) 856-1977. jon.kabat-zinn@banyan@ummed.edu .

[Article by: Linda Chrisman; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

For more information on meditation, visit Britannica.com.

English word often used to translate a range of more specific indigenous terms denoting techniques and practices designed to concentrate and focus the mind. See bhāvanā; samādhi; sādhana; vipaśyanā; śamatha.

A traditional spiritual exercise in both Eastern and Western mystical systems, usually involving a static sitting position, a blocking of the mind from normal sensory stimuli, and a concentration upon divine thoughts or mystical centers in the human body.

In Christian and some Eastern traditions, meditation was often enhanced by asceticism—prolonged fasts and other physical mortification practiced in order to assert the supremacy of the soul over all physical and sensory demands. Certain well-defined stages of spiritual growth are recorded by saints and mystics, notably the awakening of the soul, contemplation, the dark night of the soul, illumination, and spiritual ecstasy.

Several basic types of meditation can be distinguished by the particular nature of the alteration of consciousness sought. For example, Zen meditation tends to produce a focused concentration in the present. The person who meditates in this way is perfectly alert but takes no notice of surrounding noises or other phenomena. Instead of blocking outside distractions, the meditator allows them to come and go as quickly as they arise, always retaining perfect concentration.

In Hindu-based meditation forms, an attempt is made to distance oneself from the "illusionary" outside world of noise and distractions and retreat completely into the "real" world of the inner self, which causes a trancelike state. In such a condition one can easily step into a state of ecstacy and lose consciousness of the outside world.

Meditation in the West is frequently identified with contemplation of a religious symbol or pious story. That is, the consciousness remains awake and alert as in Zen, but also shut off from the outside world in total concentration upon a predetermined thought. Roman Catholics, for example, have a number of meditative practices built around contemplation of particular episodes in the life of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, or the saints, while Protestants have extolled the value of contemplating verses of Scripture.

Eastern meditation traditions are numerous and complex. In Hinduism, for example, meditation was usually taught by a guru only to a properly qualified pupil who had already followed a pathway of sadhana, or spiritual discipline that ensured purification at all levels. The various yoga systems describe such spiritual disciplines in detail, with special emphasis on moral restraints and ethical observances. Meditation without such preliminary training was considered premature and dangerous.

The most generally known system has been that of the sage Patanjali (ca. 200 B.C.E.), who taught that in order to experience true reality one must transcend the body and mind. In his Yoga Sutras, Patanjali outlines a program of physical exercises (to strengthen a meditation posture), breathing techniques (to purify the body), withdrawal of the senses, concentration, and meditation, culminating in mystical experience.

In this process supernormal powers might be manifested, but were to be ignored. The ultimate goal of meditation was spiritual illumination transcending individuality and extending the consciousness beyond time, space, and causality, but also interfusing it with the everyday duties and responsibilities of the individual. Thus it was not necessary for an illuminated individual to renounce the world, and there are stories in Hindu scriptures of kings and princes who did not forsake their mundane tasks after transcendental experience.

It is clear from consideration of the practices of many religions that meditation may be active or passive, depending upon the techniques employed and the degree of purification of the meditator. Fixed concentration upon one mental image, sound, or center in the body is a passive mechanical technique that may bring relaxation, a sense of well-being, and other benefits, but is not in itself spiritual or transcendental in the traditional sense of those terms. The popular so-called transcendental meditation technique of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi appears to be of this order, hence criticism from practitioners of other systems.

In active meditation systems, there must be purification at all levels—physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual—and the mind is exercised creatively before it can transcend its own activity. Meditators who have attained stages of higher consciousness or mystical illumination testify that there is a gradual process of refinement arising from the activity of a mysterious energy that Hindu mystics call kundalini that modifies the entire organism.

Today the variety of meditation techniques practiced throughout the world all have their advocates and practitioners in the West. Both teachers and texts are available to the aspiring student, and psychologists have dedicated research time to exploring the variant effects of the differing systems, from Zen meditation to Sufi dancing to drug-enhanced states of consciousness to Christian contemplative practices. Each of the meditation practices has particular benefits, though the majority of those benefits are only received as the practice is placed within a larger system of spiritual activity, with which it is normally integrated.

Sources:

Augustine of Hippo. Confessions of St. Augustine. Edited by Francis J. Sheed. New York: Sheed, 1943.

John of Ruysbroeck. Adornment of the Spiritual Marriage. Translated by P. Synschenk. London, 1916.

Gopi Krishna. Kundalini, the Evolutionary Energy in Man. Boulder, Colo.: Shambhala, 1970.

——. Kundalini for the New Age: Selected Writings. Edited by Gene Kieffer. New York: Bantam, 1988.

Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. London: n.p.,1964.

Melton, J. Gordon. The Ways of Meditation. Evanston, Ill.: Stellium Press, 1974.

Patanjali The Yoga-Sutras of Patanjali. Translated by M. N. Dvidedi. Adyar, India: Theosophical Publishing House, 1890.

Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Man's Spiritual Consciousness. London: n.p., 1911.

Van Over, Raymond. Total Meditation. New York: Collier Books, 1978.

Tutor's tip: My sister and I fought so bitterly as kids we often required parental "mediation" (intervention by a third party to resolve a dispute). Things between us are better now that I'm into "meditation" (deep, often spiritual, reflection) and she's on "medicatio

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Quotes:

"Still your mind in me, still yourself in me, and without a doubt you shall be united with me, Lord of Love, dwelling in your heart." - Bhagavad Gita

"Quite minds cannot be perplexed or frightened, but go on in fortune or misfortune at their own private pace, like a clock during a thunderstorm." - Robert Louis Stevenson

"Health, a light body, freedom from cravings, a glowing skin, sonorous voice, fragrance of body: these signs indicate progress in the practice of meditation." - Shvetashvatara Upanishad

"Meditation brings wisdom; lack of mediation leaves ignorance. Know well what leads you forward and what hold you back, and choose the path that leads to wisdom." - Buddha

"Through meditation and by giving full attention to one thing at a time, we can learn to direct attention where we choose." - Eknath Easwaran

"It is not enough that one surrenders oneself. Surrender is to give oneself up to the original cause of one's being. Do not delude yourself by imagining such a source to be some God outside you. One's source is within oneself. Give yourself up to it. That means that you should seek the source and merge in it." - Ramana Maharshi

See more famous quotes about Meditation