A diverse body of religion, philosophy, and cultural practice native to and predominant in India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and a supreme being of many forms and natures, by the view that opposing theories are aspects of one eternal truth, and by a desire for liberation from earthly evils.
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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
Hinduism
For more information on Hinduism, visit Britannica.com.
Philosophy Dictionary:
Hinduism
The principal religious tradition of India, centred upon the sacred texts of the Vedas. Philosophically Indian thought is separated into various darshanas or schools, exhibiting a rich variety of approaches and interests. Central concepts of Indian thought include atman, brahman, karma, moksha, and samsara, and the various Indian schools often anticipate the later topics of western philosophical thought.
Buddhism Dictionary:
Hinduism
English term denoting the mainstream religious tradition of India which regards the ancient scriptures known as the vedas as ultimately authoritative. Recent scholarly usage tends to reserve the term Hinduism for the post-classical or more popular phase of the tradition, commencing around 400 bce, and characterizes the preceding phases as the Brāhmanical (see Brāhmanism) or Vedic periods. The word Hindu is derived from the Persian term for the river Indus and its surrounding region. About 80 per cent of the approximately one billion population of India are Hindus, and there are around another 30 million living abroad. Hinduism is not a unified system of belief and practice, and should at best be regarded as a convenient shorthand for a complex social and cultural phenomenon. Those identified as Hindus do not use this term to refer to themselves or their religion, and instead speak of their beliefs as the ‘eternal truth’ (Sanskrit, sanātana dharma). Since Buddhism originated as an offshoot of Hinduism the two share many basic beliefs about cosmology, karma, and rebirth, as well as identifying the basic soteriological problem as the need to escape from the cycle of saṃsāra. They differ in that Buddhism rejects the Hindu belief in a supreme being or cosmic power (Brahman), a personal soul (ātman), sacrifice, and the caste system. See also Brahmanism.
Asian Mythology:
Hinduism
Hinduism is the dominant philosophical system of India and of the Indonesian island of Bali. Hindu is a word derived etymologically from the Persian pronunciation of the Sanskrit sindhu, meaning “river” and referring to the Indus River Valley or India itself. Hinduism is more a flow of traditions, practices, and customs than it is a religion in the usual sense of the word. Unlike Buddhism (see Buddhism), Jainism (see Jainism), and Sikhism (see Sikhism), all of which are tributaries of Hinduism, Hinduism can point to no particular founder. If there is a dominant characteristic of Hinduism it is its ability and willingness to absorb all physical and philosophical experience and all gods and goddesses in a happy polytheism (see Hindu Mythology). It is true, however, that in practice, many Hindus tend to concentrate their worship on one of three particular deities—Śiva (see Śiva), Viṣṇu (see Viṣṇu), or the Goddess (see Devī). And in a mysterious way, with its all-encompassing absolute Brahman (see Brahman), Hinduism might be said to be ultimately monist, at least to some schools of thought (see Advaita Vedānta).
The beginning of an understanding of the complexities of Hinduism requires a historical context. Perhaps the earliest source of Hinduism was the religion of the Indus Valley (see Indus Valley Mythology) people of the Neolithic, before the invasion of Aryan (see Aryans) peoples from the north. The Indus Valley culture is sometimes referred to as Dravidian (see Dravidians), after the language probably spoken by the people there, or Harappan after one of the two major cities in the area. Indus Valley archeological evidence suggests a goddess-dominated religion with composite human-animal male figures, a tradition of ritual purification in pools, and a system of ritual sacrifice. Ancient seals depict an ithyphallic yogi-like figure with buffalo horns, a figure mirrored in later Hindu representations of the great god Śiva. The dominance of the Goddess is reflected in later Hinduism's emphasis on the various forms of Devī.
The Aryans, who arrived perhaps as early as about 1500 BCE, brought with them an Indo-European religious system and pantheon that bears much resemblance to the patriarchal systems of other Indo-Europeans such as the Greeks and the Iranians. They also brought the beginnings of what would become the characteristic Hindu caste system, a system that would be dominated by the two upper classes—the priestly brahmans (see Brahmans) and the warrior kśtriyas. Preclassical Hinduism or Vedism is expressed most fully in the sacred knowledge called Vedas (see Vedas, Vedic entries), characterized as Śruti or “that which is heard” (see Śruti). First transmitted orally, the Vedas were eventually transcribed—traditionally by the sage Vyāsa (see Vyāsa), who was also said to have written down the great Hindu epic the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata). The Vedas developed over many centuries and are made up of several kinds of texts. First are the four Saṃhitās (collections): the ancient ṛg Veda or “chant Veda” (see ṛg Veda), the Sāma Veda and the Yajur Veda (liturgical Vedas), and the Athara Veda (“Atharavan's Veda”). Offshoots of the Vedic texts were developed by schools of Vedic priests. These texts are called Brāhmaṇas (see Brāhmaṇas), Āraṇyakas (see Āraṇyakas), and Upaniśads (see Upaniṣads). The Brāhmaṇas, the most important of which is the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, are expositions of the absolute Brahman by priests or brahmans (see Brahmans), and are concerned with the proper practice of rituals. In the Brāhmaṇas the ṛ g Veda one-time only world-forming sacrifice of the transcendent primal male Puruṣa (see Puruṣa) is essentially replaced by the cyclical death and resurrection sacrifice of Prajāpati (see Prajāpati), himself the source of the creator god Brahmā (see Brahmā), in a sense, a personification of the absolute Brahman. The original Puruṣa would evolve into the person of the god Viṣṇu. The theology that emerges from the Brāhmaṇas is called Brahmanism (see Brahmanism).
The Āraṇyakas (“books of the forest”) are more mystical texts, centering on the inner life and the universal Brahman. They precede the Upaniśads (“mystical understandings”), which move away from Brahmanic teachings about proper ritual to a belief that the individual must seek mokṣa (see Mokṣa), or “release” from the life death continuum or saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra). To achieve mokṣa the disciple must learn—perhaps from a guru—the connection between the transcendent absolute or Brahman and the inner absolute Ātman (see Ātman). It is important to understand that the concept of life and the universe as developed in Vedic philosophy is the essence of Hinduism.
During the eight or nine hundred years after the late Vedic Upaniśads—that is, from about 500 BCE—the great epics the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata), including and especially its Bhagavadgītā (see Bhagavadgītā) section of about 200 BCE, and the Rāmāyaṇa (see Rāmāyaṇa) play important roles in the development of a Hinduism dominated by the concepts of bhakti (see bhakti), or “devotion,” and dharma (see Dharma), or “duty.” Much mythical material of this classical Hinduism is also contained in works called Purāṇas (see Purāṇas), or “ancient stories,” written between 400 and 1200 CE (see Hindu Mythology, Tantrism). The epics and the Purāṇas come under the category of smṛti (see
Several schools of Hinduism have emerged during the many centuries in which attempts have been made to consolidate the many streams of the overall tradition into one “flow.” Of these schools, two have achieved a certain dominance or orthodoxy. Both base their teachings on the Vedic philosophy, but the Mīmāṃsā school stresses the ritual tradition of the Vedas, while the Vedānta (see Vedānta, Advaita Vedānta) school emphasizes the more mystical understandings of the Upaniśads. It must be emphasized, too, that many Hindus are particularly devoted to one of three deities, Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Devī, in their several forms or, in the case of Viṣṇu, avatars (see Avatars of Viṣṇu) or even to lesser deities such as Gaṇeśa (see GaṇeṣBa).
It is tempting for adherents of monotheistic traditions to see all of the Hindu gods as incarnations of the one Absolute or Brahman, and in a sense they are. But Brahman is not “God” in any personal sense. Still, at the level of creation there is a trimūrti of gods working as one being and as aspects of that one Absolute. Brahmā (see Brahmā) is the creator, Śiva the destroyer, and Viṣṇu the preserver. These three roles are important at several levels, the most important of which is the Hindu understanding of the cosmic sacrificial cycles or yugas (see yugas), the throws of the cosmic dice of existence, whereby the universe is destroyed and re-created over and over again. It should be noted, too, that even by the last books of the ṛg Veda the gods seem to take on the characteristics of each other, depending on the context of the hymn in question. One has the distinct sense in Hinduism that a single supreme Absolute expresses itself in many forms or gods.
US History Encyclopedia:
Hinduism
Americans learned about Hinduism in the late eighteenth century from European scholars and from missionaries and traders returning from India. Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson incorporated Hindu themes in their transcendental philosophy in the 1830s and 1840s. The first Indian to successfully promote Hinduism in America was Swami Vivekananda, who represented Hinduism at the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago's 1893 Columbian Exposition. He went on to establish Vedanta Societies in major American cities, teaching a variety of Hinduism that emphasizes social reform, religious tolerance, and the unity of self (atman) and Absolute (Brahman). Swami Paramahansa Yogananda's Self-Realization Fellowship, established in 1935 to teach kriya yoga, soon surpassed Vedanta in popularity. In the 1960s, transcendental meditation and the International Society of Krishna Consciousness, or Hare Krishna Society, gathered large numbers of followers among Americans seeking spiritual alternatives to mainstream religion, and the civil rights movement drew inspiration from Indian nationalist Mohandas K. Gandhi's interpretation of the Hindu tradition of ahimsa (nonviolence).
After the passage of less restrictive immigration laws in 1965, a large influx of Asian Indian immigrants brought a new plurality of Hindu practices to the United States. They contributed the first major, Indian-style Hindu temples, built to accommodate immigrant Hindus, to the American landscape. In 2000, there were approximately one million Hindus in the United States.
Bibliography
Jackson, Carl T. The Oriental Religions and American Thought: Nineteenth-Century Explorations. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981.
———. Vedanta for the West: The Ramakrishna Movement in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.
Tweed, Thomas A., and Stephen Prothero, eds. Asian Religions in America: A Documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
Hinduism
(hin'dūĭzəm) , Western term for the religious beliefs and practices of the vast majority of the people of India. One of the oldest living religions in the world, Hinduism is unique among the world religions in that it had no single founder but grew over a period of 4,000 years in syncretism with the religious and cultural movements of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is composed of innumerable sects and has no well-defined ecclesiastical organization. Its two most general features are the caste system and acceptance of the Veda as the most sacred scriptures.
Early Hinduism
Hinduism is a synthesis of the religion brought into India by the Aryans (c.1500 B.C.) and indigenous religion. The first phase of Hinduism was early Brahmanism, the religion of the priests or Brahmans who performed the Vedic sacrifice, through the power of which proper relation with the gods and the cosmos is established. The Veda comprises the liturgy and interpretation of the sacrifice and culminates in the Upanishads, mystical and speculative works that state the doctrine of Brahman, the absolute reality that is the self of all things, and its identity with the individual soul, or atman (see Vedanta). Later Upanishads refer to the practices of yoga and contain theistic elements that are fully developed in the Bhagavad-Gita.
Post-Vedic Hinduism in all its forms accepts the doctrine of karma, according to which the individual reaps the results of his good and bad actions through a series of lifetimes (see transmigration of souls). Also universally accepted is the goal of moksha or mukti, liberation from suffering and from the compulsion to rebirth, which is attainable through elimination of passions and through knowledge of reality and finally union with God.
Responses to Buddhism and Jainism
In the middle of the first millennium B.C., an ossified Brahmanism was challenged by heterodox, i.e., non-Vedic, systems, notably Buddhism and Jainism. The priestly elite responded by creating a synthesis that accepted yogic practices and their goals, recognized the gods and image worship of popular devotional movements, and adopted greater concern for the daily life of the people. There was an increase in writings, such as the Laws of Manu (see Manu), dealing with dharma, or duty, not only as applied to the sacrifice but to every aspect of life. Their basic principle is varna-ashrama-dharma, or dharma in accordance with varna (class or caste) and ashrama (stage of life). The four classes are the Brahmans, Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants), and Shudras (laborers). The four stages of life are brahmacharya or celibate student life (originally for study of the Veda), grihastha or householdership, vanaprastha or forest hermitage, and sannyasa, complete renunciation of all ties with society and pursuit of spiritual liberation. (In practical terms these stages were not strictly adhered to. The two main alternatives have continued to be householdership and the ascetic life.) The entire system was conceived as ideally ensuring both the proper function of society as an integrated whole and the fulfillment of the individual's needs through his lifetime.
The post-Vedic Puranas deal with these themes. They also elaborate the myths of the popular gods. They describe the universe as undergoing an eternally repeated cycle of creation, preservation, and dissolution, represented by the trinity of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer as aspects of the Supreme.
Medieval and Modern Developments
In medieval times the esoteric ritual and yoga of Tantra and sects of fervent devotion (see bhakti) arose and flourished. The groundswell of devotion produced poet-saints all over India who wrote religious songs and composed versions of the epics in their vernaculars. This literature plays an essential part in present-day Hinduism, as do puja, or worship of enshrined deities, and pilgrimage to sacred places. The most popular deities include Vishnu and his incarnations Rama and Krishna, Shiva, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, and the Mother-Goddess or Devi, who appears as the terrible Kali or Durga but also as Sarasvati, the goddess of music and learning, and as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. All the gods and goddesses, each of which has numerous aspects, are regarded as different forms of the one Supreme Being. Modern Hindu leaders such as Swami Vivekananda, Mohandas Gandhi, and Aurobindo Ghose, have given voice to a movement away from the traditional ideal of world-renunciation and asceticism and have asserted the necessity of uniting spiritual life with social concerns.
After independence in 1947 the impact of Hinduism on the political life of a country in which more than 80% of the people are adherents was moderated by the long-term rule of the Congress party (see Indian National Congress, which has striven to maintain a secular democracy. Tensions between Hindus and Muslims, however, have long been a fact of life in India, as evidenced in the creation of Pakistan, the conflict over Kashmir, and the subsequent wars between India and Pakistan. There have also been tensions with the Sikh minority, some of whom have sought independence for the Punjab, leading to violence in the 1980s (see Sikhism).
Since the late 1980s there has been increasing popular support for Hindu nationalist parties among the people of India. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, which has long rejected the secular state and called for orthodox Hindu religious practice, is influential in the mainstream Bharatiya Janata party (BJP), one of India's most important political parties. The extremist Shiv Sena and Vishwa Hindu Parishad parties have been relentless in their attacks on Muslims. The 1992 destruction in Ayodhya of a Muslim shrine and anti-Muslim riots in Mumbai in 1993 were sparked by Hindu nationalists and are among the events that have heightened Hindu-Muslim tensions.
Bibliography
See C. N. E. Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism (3 vol., 1921; repr. 1968); A. B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads (1925, repr. 1971); S. Radhakrishnan, The Hindu View of Life (1927, repr. 1962); L. Renou, Religions of Ancient India (1953, repr. 1968) and Hinduism (1961); R. G. Zaehner, Hinduism (1962); A. T. Embree, ed., The Hindu Tradition (1966, repr. 1972); T. J. Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition (1971); P. H. Ashby, Modern Trends in Hinduism (1974); A. L. Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism (1989).
Food & Culture Encyclopedia:
Hinduism
Hinduism is a religion, a philosophy, and a way of life. It guides people along paths that will ultimately lead to the individual soul (Atman) becoming one with the Universal Consciousness.
The religion recognizes that everyone is different and has a unique intellectual and spiritual outlook. Therefore, it allows people to develop and grow at their own pace by making different spiritual paths available to them. It allows various schools of thought under its broad principles. It also allows for freedom of worship so that individuals may be guided by their own spiritual experiences. This freedom of worship permits individuals to worship in any place, be it a church, mosque, or gurudwara. The tolerance shown by this religion to other faiths is unmatched. Hinduism has never been imposed on anyone, whether on a subjugated people through wars, or by offering spiritual or economic benefits to the poor.
The strength of Hinduism lies in its adaptability to the infinite diversity of human nature. It has a highly spiritual and abstract side suited to the philosopher, a practical and concrete side suited to the worldly individual, an aesthetic and ceremonial side suited to the person of poetic feeling and imagination, and a quiescent and contemplative side suited to the lover of peace and seclusion.
Hinduism is also unique in that it has adapted itself to include numerous ideals and precepts of other religions, such as those of Jainism and Buddhism. For instance, among many communities, offerings of rice and ghee (or clarified butter) took the place of animal sacrifice—a compromise with Vedic ritualism. Many of the early Aryans had been meat eaters, but under the influence of Buddhist and Jain ideas, numerous groups of Brahmins and non-Brahmins became vegetarian.
Another feature unique to Hinduism is its belief that liberation or deliverance (moksha) can be achieved in this life itself: one does not have to wait for a heaven after death.
Hindu Beliefs As Reflected in Food
Rebirth or reincarnation. The Hindus believe that one must go through several births and rebirths before attaining liberation. The hardships of the current world are a result of the actions of a previous life that have to be atoned for in the present life.
Karma. The law of karma (or action) also supports the above theory. It suggests that every action has a similar or related reaction. Although it is not possible to change one's past life, it is possible for one to shape the future and to pave the way for a better life in rebirth through the actions of the present.
Dharma. Dharma refers to duties that have to be performed at different stages of one's life. These must be completed without a thought of possible rewards or benefits and should also be accomplished to the best of one's ability. They are responsible for the prevailing social order in the world. There are four stages of Dharma:
- Student or Brahmachari—This first phase involves living and studying with a guru.
- Householder or Grihastha—This next phase starts with marriage.
- Retirees or Vanaprastha—The third phase occurs when the duties of child rearing and work are over.
- Sanyasi—This is the final phase when all worldly desires are renounced and the individual spends all of his or her time in meditation.
Hindu Scriptures
Hinduism is based on the Eternal Truth as it has been explicitly defined in the scriptures:
- The Srutis come from the Vedas, of divine origin and unchangeable. They encapsulate the greatest truths.
- The Smritis, referred to as the Dharma Shashtras, are of human composition. They govern the daily conduct of people, including the actions of the individual, the community, and the nation, and may change over time.
- The epics are those stories or fables in which the philosophy of the Vedas is told. The most important epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
- The Puranas are the Hindu scriptures that convey the truths of the Vedas and the Dharma Shashtras in the form of tales. These stories form the basis of religious education for the common man.
- The Agamas record the doctrine for the worship of different deities, including Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti.
- The Darshanas encompass the six schools of Hindu philosophy; they guide scholars.
Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Hinduism has many gods and goddesses, some of whom were worshipped by early peoples who later came into contact with this faith. The aim of Hinduism is not the worship of any one of these deities, but rather the means with which the individual soul or Atman will become one with the Brahman, or the Universal Soul. Among the most commonly worshipped gods are:
- Nirguna Brahman—The Universal Soul who transcends time and space and is formless.
- Saguna Brahman—The concept of Ichwara, the Great God, with a form upon which the individual mind may fixate during prayer and meditation.
- The Trinity—As personified by the three attributes of Ichwara, including their feminine dimensions: creation (Brahman), preservation (Vishnu), and destruction (Shiva).
Attaining Moksha
There are essentially three paths to attain oneness with the Universal Consciousness:
- Bhakti yoga (the path of devotion)—The vast majority of people choose this path of single-minded devotion to a favorite god.
- Karma yoga (the path of action)—Those who choose this path believe in the dictum "work is worship." No job is too menial or too low for this devotée, as all work is a means of realizing God.
- Jnana yoga (the path of knowledge)—This is perhaps the most difficult of the three paths and therefore chosen by very few, usually scholars. Knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita is essential.
Bibliography
Khare, R. S., ed. The Eternal Food: Gastronomic Ideas and Experiences of Hindus and Buddhists. SUNY Series in Hinduism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
Morgan, Kenneth William. Asian Religions: An Introduction to theStudy of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, and Taoism. New York: Macmillan, 1964.
Ross, Nancy Wilson. Hinduism, Buddhism, Zen: An Introduction to Their Meaning and Their Arts. London: Faber & Faber, 1968.
Toomey, Paul M. Food from the Mouth of Krishna: Feasts and Festivities in a North Indian Pilgrimage Centre. Delhi, India: Hindustan, 1994.
—Thangam Philip
Wikipedia:
Hinduism
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Hinduism (known as Hindū Dharma in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also sometimes referred to as Sanātana Dharma (सनातन धर्म), a Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal law".[3]
Hinduism, many of whose origins can be traced to the ancient Vedic civilization,[4] is the world's oldest extant religion.[5][6] A conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions, Hinduism has no single founder.[7][8] It is also the world's third largest religion following Christianity and Islam, with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India and Nepal.[9] Other countries with large Hindu populations include Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.
Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptures. Divided as revealed and remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of dharma (religious living). In the orthodox view, among such texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras, the sectarian Agamas, the Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise excerpted from the Mahābhārata, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.[10]
Etymology
The Persian term Hindū is derived from Sindhu, Sanskrit for the Indus River.[11] The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad: Fargard 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".[12]
Beliefs
Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.[13] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various yogas (paths or practices).
Concept of God
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,[14] panentheism, pantheism, monism and atheism. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (devotion to a single "God" while accepting the existence of other gods), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variations of belief.[15]
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman—is eternal.[16] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."[17] The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[18] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)[16][19][20]
Other schools (for example, Dvaita Vedanta) and other (bhakti) schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with deities such as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva or Shakti depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God while Moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.[21] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"[22]), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"[22]), or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"[22]).[17] However, interpretations of Ishvara vary—ranging from non-belief such as followers of Mimamsakas, in Ishvara to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one as in Advaita.[17][23] There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings.[24]
Devas and avatars
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called Devas (or
devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi means 'divinity' in Sanskrit),
"the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".[25] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in
art, architecture and through
Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form, in order to restore dharma in society and guide humans to moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth). Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu, and include Rama (protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).
Karma, samsara and moksha
Karma translates literally as action, work or deed[29] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[30] According to the Upanishads, an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[31] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of free will and destiny.
This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:
| “ | As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[32] |
” |
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[33][34] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[35][36] The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[37] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said, the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."[38]
The goals of life
Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.
The Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals known as the puruṣhārthas. They are:
- kāma: Sensual pleasure and enjoyment
- Artha: Material prosperity and success
- Dharma: Correct action, in accordance with one's particular duty and scriptural laws [citation needed]
- Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of samsara[39][40]
Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:[40] dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon.
The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described below, the Grihasthi eventually enters this stage. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.
Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A practitioner of yoga is called a yogi. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi, or nirvana) include:
- Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),
- Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
- Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
- Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom).[41]
An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the age of Kali yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle).[42] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[43] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.[41][44]
History
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late Neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600BCE).[45][46][47][48] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100BCE.[49] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.[50] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 500–100BCE,[51] although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period.[52] The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.
Three key events underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the Upanishads, Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism).[53] The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; [citation needed] Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.[54] Buddhism and Jainism adapted elements of Hinduism into their beliefs. Buddhism (or at least Buddhistic Hinduism) peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[55] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.[56] Between 400BCE and 1000CE, Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.[57]
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[56] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam. Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[56] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.[58]
Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West.