Greek fire

 

a flammable composition believed to have consisted of sulfur, naphtha, and quicklime. Although known in antiquity, it was first employed on a large scale by the Byzantines. Bronze tubes that emitted jets of liquid fire were mounted on the prows of their galleys and on the walls of Constantinople. The Byzantines in 678 and again in 717–18 destroyed two Saracen fleets with Greek fire.

For the 2007 series of fires, see 2007 Greek forest fires.

Greek Fire
Also called:	Byzantine fire wildfire sea fire liquid fire
Byzantine Greek:	υγρόν πυρ (ygròn pyr): "liquid fire"

Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Chinese, and Mongols. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It was largely responsible for many Byzantine military victories, and partly the reason for the Byzantine Empire surviving as long as it did. The formula was a secret and remains a mystery to this day. As one contemporary victim of Greek fire advised his comrades, "Every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger."^[1]

Origin

Theophanes records that Greek fire was invented c. 670 in Constantinople by Kallinikos (Callinicus), an architect from Heliopolis in the Byzantine Iudaea Province.^[2] Historian James Partington thinks it likely that "Greek fire was really invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school".^[3] Many accounts note that the fires it caused could not be put out by pouring water on the flames—on the contrary, the water served to intensify or spread them, suggesting that 'Greek fire' may have been a 'thermite-like' reaction, possibly involving a quicklime or similar compound. Others have posited a flammable liquid that floated on water, possibly a form of naphtha or another low-density liquid hydrocarbon, as petroleum was known to Eastern chemists long before its use became widespread in the 1800s.

Use

In its earliest uses it was applied onto enemy forces by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing a flask, using a form of light catapult, most probably a sea-borne variant of the Roman light catapult or onager. These were capable of hurling light loads (c. six to nine kilograms—up to twenty pounds) 350-450 meters (approx. four to five hundred yards). Later technological improvements in machining technology enabled the devising of a pump mechanism discharging a stream of burning fluid (flame thrower) at close ranges, devastating wooden ships in naval warfare and also very effective on land as a counter-force suppression weapon used on besieging forces. There are many accounts of the Byzantine Empire driving off attacks on the walls using this devastatingly frightful secret formula.

The earliest reference to Greek fire in China was made in AD 917, written by the author Wu Ren-chen in his Shi Guo Chun Qiu.^[4] The Chinese Emperor of Wu (with his capital at Hangzhou at the time) had presented the Khitan monarch Apaoki with a gift of 'fire oil', yet the Khitan Queen Shu Li advised against its use, saying it was better to attack enemies with cavalry than it was to attack with seemingly useless oil.^[5] In AD 919, the siphon projector-pump was used to spread the "fierce fire oil" that could not be doused with water, as recorded by Lin Yu in his Wu Yue Bei Shi, hence the first credible Chinese reference to the flamethrower employing the chemical solution of Greek fire (see also Pen Huo Qi).^[6] Lin Yu mentioned also that the 'fierce fire oil' derived ultimately from one of China's maritime contacts in the 'southern seas', Arabia (Dashiguo).^[7] In a battle of AD 932, at the Battle of Langshan Jiang (Wolf Mountain River), the naval fleet of the Wen-Mu King was defeated by Qian Yuanguan because he had used 'fire oil' ('huo you') to burn his fleet, signifying the first Chinese use of gunpowder in a battle (see also blackpowder).^[7] The Chinese applied the use of double-piston bellows (this double-set used since the Han Dynasty for smelting cast iron) to pump petrol out of a single cylinder (with an upstroke and downstroke). This fluid was lit at the end by a slow-burning gunpowder match to fire a continuous stream of flame, as referred to and illustrated in the Wujing Zongyao manuscript of AD 1044.^[7] In the suppression of the Southern Tang state by AD 976, early Song Dynasty naval forces confronted them on the Yangtze River in AD 975. Southern Tang forces attempted to use flamethrowers against the Song navy, but were accidentally consumed by their own fire when violent winds swept in their direction.^[8] The Song Dynasty continued use of the flamethrower, while the Chinese of this era also innovated the early grenade, firearm, land mine, and cannon.

See also Huolongjing

Link to Byzantine victories

Greek fire was largely responsible for many Byzantine military victories, and partly the reason the Eastern Roman Empire survived as long as it did. It was particularly helpful near the end of the empire's life when there were not enough inhabitants to effectively defend its territories. It was first used to repel the Muslim Arabs at the first Siege of Constantinople (674), the Battle of Syllaeum (677), and the second Siege of Constantinople (718). The Byzantines also used this powerful weapon against the Rus in the Rus'-Byzantine War of 941 and against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade. It quickly became one of the most fearsome weapons of the medieval world. The sight of any sort of siphon, whether it was used for Greek fire or not, was often enough to demoralize an enemy. However, Greek fire was very hard to control, and it would often accidentally set Byzantine ships ablaze.

Although similar substances have been invented in the modern age, the exact composition of the original Greek fire is unknown.

The effectiveness of Greek fire was indisputable; however, it was mainly effective under certain circumstances. For instance, it was less effective in the open sea than in narrow sea passages. Greek fire should not be considered an invention that solved all the maritime problems of the Byzantine Empire. Naval war continued to be based on the traditional art of maritime strategy, to which Greek fire added an effective weapon for the Byzantines.

Manufacture

The ingredients, process of manufacture, and usage were a very carefully guarded military secret—so secretive that it remains a source of speculation to this day. Speculations include

• petroleum, niter, sulfur^[9];
• naphtha, quicklime, sulfur^[10];
• phosphorus and saltpeter^[11].

It is not clear if the operator ignited the mixture with a flame as it emerged from the syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously on contact with water or air. If the latter is the case, it is possible that the active ingredient was calcium phosphide, made by heating lime, bones, and charcoal. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously. The reaction of quicklime with water also creates enough heat to ignite hydrocarbons, especially if an oxidizer such as saltpeter is present. However, Greek fire was also used on land.

These ingredients were apparently heated in a cauldron, and then pumped out through a siphon or large syringe (known as a siphònariòs) mounted on the bow of the ship. Such a ship was herself called a siphònòphòròs or dromon. It could also be used in hand grenades, made of earthenware vessels. If a pyrophoric reaction was involved, perhaps these grenades contained chambers for the fluids, which mixed and ignited when the vessel broke on impact with the target.

Testimony

The Memoirs of Jean de Joinville, a thirteenth century French nobleman, include these observations of Greek fire during the Seventh Crusade:[1]

It happened one night, whilst we were keeping night-watch over the tortoise-towers, that they brought up against us an engine called a perronel, (which they had not done before) and filled the sling of the engine with Greek fire. When that good knight, Lord Walter of Cureil, who was with me, saw this, he spoke to us as follows: "Sirs, we are in the greatest peril that we have ever yet been in. For, if they set fire to our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt; and if, again, we desert our defences which have been entrusted to us, we are disgraced; so none can deliver us from this peril save God alone. My opinion and advice therefore is: that every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger."

So soon as they flung the first shot, we went down on our elbows and knees, as he had instructed us; and their first shot passed between the two turrets, and lodged just in front of us, where they had been raising the dam. Our firemen were all ready to put out the fire; and the Saracens, not being able to aim straight at them, on account of the two pent-house wings which the King had made, shot straight up into the clouds, so that the fire-darts fell right on top of them.

This was the fashion of the Greek fire: it came on as broad in front as a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.

Thrice that night they hurled the Greek fire at us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet cross-bow.

The Dream Pool Essays observes that "There are Buddhist books which speak of 'dragon fire' which burns more fiercely when it meets with water instead of being extinguished by water like 'human' fire. Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge, and subjective ideas."^[12]

Trivia

Trivia sections are discouraged under Wikipedia guidelines. The article could be improved by integrating relevant items and removing inappropriate ones.

• In 2003 Richard Donner directed the film Timeline, based on the novel of the same name by Michael Crichton. In the story, an archaeologist from the present journeys to the fourteenth century and in an effort to save his life from his captors, offers to give them the secret of Greek Fire. Although the plot is not based on historical fact, the movie demonstrates the effectiveness of Greek Fire. Nevertheless, the Greek fire in the film also is given explosive properties, which does not seem to be backed by historical evidence. In the novel, however, a mixture of resin and gunpowder is used instead of Greek fire.

• In A Thing Or Two About Loyalty, an episode of the 2006 BBC Television series of Robin Hood, the term "Greek fire" is used erroneously to describe explosive black powder.^[13]

• C. J. Sansom's 2004 novel, Dark Fire, describes a chase to locate a cache of Greek fire in Reformation England.

See also

• Flamethrower
• Napalm
• Byzantine navy

Notes

1. ^ The History of Greek Fire. Accessed on July 11, 2007.
2. ^ The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Oxford University Press, 1997.
3. ^ Partington 1999:12-13
4. ^ Needham, Volume 5, p80.
5. ^ Partington 240.
6. ^ Needham, Volume 5, p81.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Needham, Volume 5, p82.
8. ^ Needham, Volume 5, p89.
9. ^ "JSTOR: Notes on Cannon". JSTOR: Notes on Cannon-Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.
10. ^ "Greek Fire". 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.
11. ^ "Roman Seapower". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
12. ^ = Needham, Volume 3, 482.
13. ^ Robin Hood, Episode 9, from the BBC.

References

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• James Riddick Partington (1960, reprinted 1999). A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5954-9. 
• Spears, W.H., Jr. (1969). Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe. ISBN 0-9600106-3-7

See also:

• Watts, John M.(1993) “Greek Fire”, Editorial, Fire Technology, Volume 29, Number 3 / DOI10.1007/BF01152106
• Corp, Ernest L. (1994) Letter to the Editor, Fire Technology, Volume 30, Number 3 / DOI10.1007/BF01038076

External links

• "Technoporn: Greek Fire". Wired Blog. December 29, 2006.

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