1794
1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800
The bishop of Lyons goes to the guillotine after a trial January 11 and Republican troops under General Turreau begin a systematic destruction of the Vendée region (see 1793). Jacobin newspaper editor Jacques Hébert of Le Père Duchesne calls for an insurrection but is guillotined along with other Hébertist extremists March 24 as Robespierre crushes his rivals at Paris, the sans-cullotte revolutionary army is dissolved March 27 by order of the Convention. Georges Jacques Danton is arrested March 31 along with Camille Desmoulins and others on charges of having conspired with foreign rulers against the French republic, and they are guillotined April 5. Robespierre establishes a dictatorial Committee of Public Safety April 19, former revolutionary leader Jean Le Chapelier returns from a visit to England and goes to the guillotine at Paris April 22 at age 39. Robespierre ends the Cult of Reason, wins unanimous election June 4 as president of the Convention, and establishes himself June 8 as high priest of a new Festival of the Supreme Being. Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, was named general in chief of the Army of the Rhine last year but is seized along with other noblemen and guillotined at Paris June 23 at age 34 as the Reign of Terror continues.
French forces invade Piedmont in April. Napoleon Bonaparte has been promoted to general of brigade in February and leads an offensive to support "Piedmont's revolutionaries"; he captures the Piedmontese enclave of Omeglia on Genoan territory April 18.
Britain signs a treaty with Prussia and the Netherlands against France at The Hague April 19. Austrian general Peter Ott leads a force of 300 British and Austrian light cavalrymen in a reconnaisance operation near Cambrai April 24. He runs into strong opposition at Villers-en-Cauches, but after scattering the first French cavalry force, he attacks a 12,000-man infantry position, overruns its guns, and after a 12-kilometer pursuit has killed, wounded, or captured some 1,200 Frenchmen while suffering only 66 casualties. Landrecies in northern France surrenders to Austrian forces April 30. French troops enter Catalonia in northern Spain May 1, and French forces under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, 31, defeat an Austrian army led by Friedrich of Saxe-Coburg at Tourcoing May 14 then capture Tourcoing May 17, opening the way for French troops to enter the former Spanish Lowlands. British-financed Prussian forces defeat a French army in Poland June 15 and force the French to leave Warsaw. French forces under General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, 32, seize Charleroi in the Netherlands; Saxe-Coburg's 185,000 Austrians far outnumber the 80,000 Frenchmen under the command of General Charles Pichegru, 32, June 26, but Pichegru uses intelligence communicated by members of the Corps Aerostatique from observation balloons high above the field (see transportation [Charles], 1787) to see how the Austrians are deployed and defeats Saxe-Coburg June 26 at the Battle of Fleurus in a 14-hour engagement. The French expel the Austrians from Ostend July 1 and capture Brussels July 8.
French forces occupy Cologne and find that the city has remained predominantly Roman Catholic, with Protestant Church services not permitted in public. No Jew is permitted to remain overnight.
The conspiracy of 9 Thermidor (July 27) topples Robespierre from power before he can have the comte de Rochambeau and other leaders guillotined. Moderates arrest Robespierre, his brother, and his associates Georges Couthon, 39, and Louis (-Antoine-Léon) de Saint-Just, 26. Supporters of the "incorruptible" Robespierre release him and his companions but are taken by surprise July 28 at the Hôtel de Ville; he is sent to the guillotine with 18 others, including Saint-Just. More than 80 of Robespierre's sympathizers go to the guillotine July 29 as opponents resist efforts to make France "a republic of virtue," but Bertrand Barère and other Committee of Public Safety members quickly lose their popularity and public opinion forces Robespierre's successors to end the Great Terror that began June 10. The Thermidoreans (moderates) close Jacobin clubs but readmit to the Convention those Girondists who have escaped the carnage with their lives.
English chemist-clergyman Joseph Priestley flees to America after his outspoken statements in support of France's revolutionists provoke further ire (see 1791).
British forces in the Caribbean recapture Martinique from the French March 23, capture Port-au-Prince in Saint-Domingue June 4, but are ousted from Guadeloupe June 7. The British held Martinique from 1762 to 1763; this time they will hold it until 1802.
A Royal Navy fleet under the command of Admiral Richard Howe, now 68, defeats a French fleet in the North Atlantic June 1, capturing six French ships and sinking a seventh. Most of the former French Navy officers have either been executed or gone into exile. Louis Villaret de Joyeuse has been escorting 130 grain ships from the United States into Brest, and Lord Howe has sighted the convoy 430 miles west of the Breton island of Ouessant (Ushant) May 28. Each fleet has 26 ships of the line (four more come to reinforce Villaret as the battle progresses), and fighting has continued for 2 days, but although the British will celebrate the encounter as the Battle of the Glorious First of June, Villaret has succeeded in drawing the Royal Navy away from the grain ships and permitting them to arrive safely at their destination. The British raise £21,281 for distribution to the widows and orphans of those lost.
Former royal governor of Quebec (and of Minorca) General James Murray dies near Battle, Sussex, June 18 at age 73.
British forces take Corsica from the French August 21 after bombardment by Captain Horatio Nelson of the Royal Navy and harassment by nationalists under the command of the island's patriot governor Pasquale de Paoli, 69. Scottish-born American Revolution veteran John Moore, 33, distinguishes himself in the action.
An anti-French pact signed at St. Petersburg September 28 allies Britain with Russia and Austria, but French military successes in Germany lead Prime Minister Pitt to cut financing of Prussian troops October 10. General Jourdan takes Coblenz October 23, Prussia denounces the Treaty of The Hague October 25 and pulls her troops out of the Netherlands, French forces invade the Netherlands December 27, and France signs an armistice with Austria December 31.
Polish revolutionists rise against the Russians in March under the leadership of American Revolution veteran Tadeusz Kosciuszko, who arrives at Kraków, gains the support of dissident officers, and proclaims a provisional government giving him dictatorial powers (see second partition, 1793). Helped by General Jan Henryk Dabrowski, 38, the Poles defeat a superior Russian army at Raclawice April 4 and enter Warsaw April 19, forcing the Russians to withdraw after a 2-day revolt in the city; the Jacobins seize Vilna April 22, Kosciuszko enters that city the next day, but a Russian army under General Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov, 65, crushes the Poles at Maciejowice October 10; Kosciuszko is injured and taken prisoner (Czar Paul I releases him on the promise that he will not take up arms against Russia again). The surviving Polish rebels are massacred at Praga November 4, and the Russians enter Warsaw November 9, putting an end to the uprising (see third partition, 1795).
The Persian city of Kerman surrenders to Kajar forces after a 4-month siege, the Persian king Lutf Ali Khan escapes but is wounded and captured, whereupon he is blinded, tortured, and, finally, strangled at Teheran on orders from the brutal Kajar chieftain Agha Mohammad, who takes power, founding the Kajar dynasty that will rule Persia until 1925 (see 1791). The death of Lutf Ali Khan at age 25 after a 5-year reign ends the Zand dynasty founded in 1750. The women of Kerman are raped and then killed or sold into slavery, and Agha Mohammad demands 20,000 pairs of men's eyes, which are delivered to him. Castrated at age 5 or 6 to prevent him from becoming a political rival of Adil Shah, he nevertheless became de facto governor of Azerbaijan Province at age 15, succeeded his father as head of the Kavanlu clan the following year, was captured by a rival chieftain at age 20 and sent as a prisoner to Shiraz, spent 16 years as a political hostage, escaped 15 years ago, and made his way to the Kavanlu stronghold of Astarbad. Now 54, he will be crowned next year and reign until his assassination in 1796.
Burma's king Bodawpaya sends an army to suppress a revolt in his province of Arakan (see 1785); when thousands of people take refuge across the border in British territory he sends troops to pursue the rebel leaders (see 1795).
British colonial officer Francis Light dies at Penang Island October 21 at age 54, having governed the settlement since 1786.
The 50-year Tembe civil war in southern Africa ends in triumph for the Maputo kingdom, which gains exclusive rights to trade with Portuguese ships in Maputo Bay, but vast stretches of Natal and Swaziland remain open to conquest by Ndwandwe and Mthewa chiefs.
Congress grudgingly authorizes construction March 27 of some frigates to resist "the depredations committed by the Algerian corsairs [pirates] on the commerce of the United States," thus providing for the basis of a permanent U.S. Navy (see Jones, 1779). Thomas Jefferson and others have opposed the measure, calling it an infringement on states' rights, and although the law calls for building six frigates, it contains a provision that would reduce the number to three in the event that a peace treaty can be signed with the Algerians, who have been seizing merchant vessels that did not meet their demands for tribute and have held seamen for ransom, as they have for centuries. A treaty will be signed next year, but it will have little real effect. Philadelphia shipbuilder Joshua Humphreys, 43, submits plans to Secretary of War Henry Knox that call for construction of super-frigates—longer, broader, and lower in the water than brigs or sloops but smaller and less costly than conventional European ships of the line, which are slower and less maneuverable (see 1797; Stoddert, 1798).
The Whiskey Rebellion begun by frontier farmers July 17 brings the first show of force by the new U.S. government (see Insurrection Act, 1792). The farmers have converted their grain into whiskey in order to transport it more efficiently to market but have resisted a cash excise tax imposed on whiskey, which is itself a medium of exchange in western Pennsylvania. Federal militiamen put down the rebellion without bloodshed. Americans consume absolute alcohol (in the form of whiskey, rum, applejack, other spirits, wine, beer, ale, and cider) at the rate of 7.1 gallons per person per year, a rate that will continue until 1830 (see Insurrection Act, 1795).
The Battle of Fallen Timbers August 20 ends the Indian threat to American settlers in the Ohio-Kentucky region. British provocateurs have encouraged the Shawnee chief Tecumseh (Tecumtha, or Tikamthi), 26, to attack the whites; he has persuaded the other tribes of the Ohio Valley that the frontier belongs to all of them and that no land may be purchased from any single tribe; his army of 1,300 braves from various tribes have attacked Fort Recovery in June, but General Anthony Wayne's forces outnumber the tribesmen almost two to one, and he hands them a decisive defeat (see Treaty of Greenville, 1795).
Jay's Treaty is signed at London November 19 and settles disputes that remain between the United States and Britain. Resisting popular demands that the United States take France's side in her war with the British, President Washington has sent Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay to London, the British agree to evacuate their posts in the U.S. Northwest between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, and the treaty will spur settlement in the area. Federalist congressman Fisher Ames, now 36, has been reelected for a third time and delivers a speech that persuades the House to pass an enabling appropriation; a modification of the treaty permits U.S. ships to carry cocoa, coffee, cotton, molasses, and sugar from the British West Indies to any part of the world (see 1795).
Patriot Richard Henry Lee dies at his Virginia estate, Chantilly, near Stratford, June 19 at age 62; Virginia patriot-explorer-land speculator Thomas Walker on his Albemarle County plantation November 9 at age 79, having worked on a committee in the 1780s to promote his state's western land claims; Baron von Steuben dies at his Remsen, New York, farm November 28 at age 64.
Princess Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel is married by proxy December 4 to Britain's Prince of Wales, with the earl of Malmesbry standing in for the prince. The prince has agreed to the match with his cousin on the promise of an income of at least £100,000 per year (see 1795).
France's Convention frees slaves in all French colonies February 4, making France the first nation to emancipate her slaves (but see Bonaparte, 1802). Officials at Mauritius (the Ile de France) in the Pacific ignore the Convention's declaration. Slaves in the colony of Saint Domingue on Hispaniola rise in protest against a new Code Rural that bars peasant laborers from leaving their plantations, entering the towns, or starting farms or shops of their own (see Sonthonax, 1793). The French authorities establish a constabulary to enforce the new code, but Pierre Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture (originally François Dominique Toussaint), 51, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, 36, and Henri Christophe, 27, lead nearly 500,000 blacks and mulattoes against the colonial government. Saint Domingue has about 40,000 white Frenchmen and accounts for one-third of France's commerce, producing nearly two-thirds of the world's coffee, nearly half its sugar, and much of its cotton, indigo, and cocoa (see politics, 1802).
Congress votes March 22 to forbid U.S. citizens to participate in the slave trade with foreign nations. Providence merchant Moses Brown has long since freed his own slaves, as have some other members of the family, and has taken a leading role in pushing the Slave Trade Act, but the new law has little popular support; Brown's brother John has been engaged in the triangular trade since 1764 and will disregard the prohibition (see 1797).
English abolitionist Thomas Clarkson issues a pamphlet urging suppression of slavery.
France's Law of 22 Prairial inaugurates the Great Terror. Enacted June 10, it forbids represenation by defense attorneys, provides for no preliminary questioning of defendants or witnesses if the revolutionary tribunal says it has enough factual or "moral" proof, allows juries to convict without hearing evidence or argument, and gives juries no choice other than to acquit or condemn to death. Some 2,639 people are taken in tumbrils to the guillotine at Paris during June and July, inflaming opposition to Robespierre, new prisons are opened to accommodate more than 8,000 suspects at Paris, and at least 3,548 are guillotined in the Loire Valley.
Explorer Alejandro Malaspina returns to Cádiz September 21 after 82 months at sea (see 1792); Carlos IV and his reactionary prime minister Manuel Godoy receive him December 7 at El Escorial (see politics, 1795).
Navigator George Vancouver returns to England October 20, having sailed around the world.
The 450-ton ship John Jay sent out to Guangzhou (Canton) from Providence by the firm Brown & Benson (formerly Nicholas Brown & Co., later Brown & Ives) carries a cargo valued at $34,550 and will return with one worth $250,000 (see 1787). Such huge profits will encourage others to enter the China trade.
The 2-year-old Insurance Company of North America (later Cigna) issues the first U.S. life-insurance policy, insuring the life of a sea captain against death during a voyage. The policy includes a clause promising benefits in the event that Barbary Coast pirates capture the captain. The Pennsylvania state legislature approves a bill to incorporate the company, which issues its first fire-insurance policy, covering German dry goods in a house at Philadelphia.
Eli Whitney patents his 1792 cotton gin and sets up a company with Mrs. Nathanael Greene's second husband, Phineas Miller, to establish gins at central points for processing planters' green-seed cotton. But others infringe on the patent, Whitney earns nothing from his cotton gin, and Miller will lose a fortune trying in vain to fight patent infringers (see 1798).
Bridge engineer Jean (-Rodolphe) Perronet dies at Paris February 27 at age 85.
The Lancaster Road opens to link the Pennsylvania Dutch country and Lancaster with Philadelphia and the Delaware River (see 1792). Stockholders have subscribed $465,000 to finance it and will receive such handsome dividends—15 percent in some years—that their success will inspire similar toll-road projects (see Cumberland Road, 1811).
The first U.S. national arsenals are established at Springfield, Massachusetts, whose citizens were asked in 1776 to produce firearms for the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, and at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. The 1795 Springfield flintlock musket will be the first official U.S. weapon, and Springfield will become the small arms center of the world (see Springfield rifle, 1903; human rights, 1859).
The slide-rest that will be an essential part of the modern lathe is invented by engineer Joseph Bramah, now 34, or his foreman Henry Maudslay, now 23, or both working together (when Bramah refuses Maudslay's request for a raise, Maudslay will quit and go into business on his own). The slide-rest is a saddle that moves a cutting tool horizontally along the work being turned; along with other tools designed and built by Bramah, Maudslay, and men who will receive their training in Maudslay's shop, it will help provide the basis for the machine-tool industry that will underly the growth of British manufacturing in the next century (see Wilkinson, 1798; Maudslay, 1810; Nasmyth, 1839).
Welsh ironmaster Philip Vaughan at Carmarthen patents radial ball bearings for the axle bearings of carriages, but full development of ball bearings will await the invention of precise grinding machines that can produce accurately spherical metal balls.
Elements of Geometry (Eléments de géométrie) by French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre, 41, substantially rearranges and simplifies many of the propositions in Euclid's Elements (see Wallis, 1657; Barrow, 1670); a more effective teaching tool, it will replace Euclid as a textbook in most of Europe and serve as the prototype of U.S. geometry texts.
The founder of modern chemistry (and nutritional science) Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier goes to the guillotine May 8 at age 50 in retribution for his direction of l'ancien regime's tax organization, the Fermier Général: "La république n'a pas besoin de savants," says the vice president of the tribunal, one Coffinhall, but mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange says, "It required but a moment to sever that head, and perhaps a century will not be sufficient to produce another like it."
English industrialist Matthew Boulton writes to philosopher Erasmus Darwin, "J. Schweppe prepares his [carbonated] mineral waters of three sorts. No. 1 is for common drinking with your dinner. No. 2 is for nephritick patients and No. 3 contains the most alkali given only in more violent cases" (see food, 1790). No conclusive evidence will be produced to show that carbonated beverages (soft drinks) have any direct medical value, but they will be used after surgical procedures to alleviate nausea when no other food can be tolerated.
The Ecole Normale is founded at Paris. It will employ mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre as professor of mathematics beginning next year.
The Ecole Polytechnique is the world's first technical college. France's revolutionary government founds it to provide training for scientists with special emphasis on mathematics and applied science.
A museum for the popularization of science opens at Philadelphia under the direction of portrait painter Charles Willson Peale, a veteran of the War of Independence who is well known for his nearly 60 portraits of George Washington based on seven that he has painted from life.
Bowdoin College is founded at Brunswick, Massachusetts (later to be part of Maine) by an act of the Massachusetts General Court signed by Governor Samuel Adams June 24; it is named in memory of the late governor James Bowdoin and will construct its first building, Massachusetts Hall, from 1799 to 1802.
The University of Tennessee has its beginnings in Blount College. It will become East Tennessee College in 1804, East Tennessee University in 1840, and the Knoxville-based University of Tennessee in 1879.
College of New Jersey (later Princeton) president John Witherspoon dies at Tusculum, New Jersey, November 15 at age 71. The only clergyman to have signed the Declaration of Independence, he has taught students who went on to become prominent educators and statesmen.
The pamphlet "Observations on the Emigration of Joseph Priestley" by William Cobbett creates a controversy by calling Priestley a traitor and launches Cobbett on a career as journalist (see medicine, 1793). Having joined the British Army 10 years ago and served in Canada, Cobbett returned home in 1791, filed charges of corruption against some of his former officers, fled to France to escape court-martial after the officers filed countercharges, and quickly left France for Philadelphia, where he has been living with his family and teaching English to French émigrés (see medicine, 1799).
Nonfiction: The Age of Reason, Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology by Thomas Paine is published in the first of its three parts. Paine was imprisoned for opposing the Reign of Terror, he dares to suggest that humans invented religion rather than being the creations of a divine force, his work is clearly an attack on organized religion, it alienates his friends both in Europe and America, but it strikes a responsive chord with many thinking persons on both sides of the Atlantic; Foundation of the Whole Theory of Science (Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre) by Johann Gottlieb Fichte departs from Kantian transcendentalism by replacing God with an Absolute Mind (Ur-Ich) or Primeval Self. Man cannot achieve true freedom without a rational legal system, Fichte says (see Kant, 1781).
Historian Edward Gibbon dies in a house in St. James's Street January 16 at age 56 while on a visit to London, having become so overweight that his obesity has damaged his health, although the proximate cause of his death is septicemia following surgery for gout, which has moved from his foot to one of his testicles, causing it to swell to the size of a melon.
Fiction: Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams by William Godwin; The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe.
Poetry: "Scots Wha Hae" by Robert Burns is published May 8 in the Morning Chronicle: "Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled,/ Scots, wham Bruce has often led,/ Welcome to your gory bed,/ Or to victorie."
Songs of Experience by William Blake indicates the poet's disillusion with France and describes in starkly simple terms the shattering of innocence by man and society: "Tyger! Tyger! burning bright/ In the forests of the night,/ What immortal hand or eye/ Could frame thy fearful symmetry?"
Poet André Marie de Chénier protests against the extremism of the revolution, is imprisoned in March on orders from Robespierre, and is guillotined at Paris July 25 at age 31. His bucolics, elegies, epistles, hymns, and odes, many of them written in prison, will not be published until 1819.
Painting: The Declaration of Independence by poet-turned-painter John Trumbull, now 38, who served as an aide to George Washington and then as adjutant to General Gates, attained a colonelcy before he was 21, sailed to England in 1780 to study with Benjamin West, was imprisoned on suspicion of treason, began his large canvas in London 8 years ago, and returned to the United States in 1789 to continue work on the painting, which includes 48 portraits, two thirds of them painted from life; The Madhouse by Francisco de Goya; Aspasia by Marie Geneviève Bouliar.
London hails the opening of a new Theatre Royal (Drury Lane Theatre) that has been commissioned by playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan and built to neoclassical designs by architect Henry Holland, but the house will be destroyed by fire in 1809.
Playwright-aphorist Sebastien Chamfort dies in agony at Paris April 13 at age 53 from wounds self-inflicted late last year in a suicide attempt as he was about to be arrested for his outspoken opinions during the Reign of Terror. Chamfort's Tableaux de la révolution française will be published posthumously, as will his Maximas et pensées, Caractères, and Anecdotes.
Opera: English soprano-composer Elizabeth Billington goes abroad with her brother and husband to escape London gossips (see 1792). Sir William Hamilton at Naples has her sing at a private party and persuades her to perform at the San Carlo Opera House. She makes a brilliant debut in May in Bianchi's opera Inez de Castro (written especially for her). Her husband dies of apoplexy soon afterward, she becomes a great friend of Emma, Lady Hamilton; and she remains at Naples for another 16 months, singing in operas composed for her by Paisiello, Paer, and Himmel.
First performances: Symphony No. 99 in E flat major by Joseph Haydn 2/10 at London's Hanover Square Rooms; Symphony No. 100 in E major (Military) by Haydn at London; Symphony No. 101 in D major (The Clock) by Haydn 3/3 at the King's Concert Hall, a new addition to the King's Theatre, London. Haydn has come to England as in 1791 and once again writes six new symphonies for J. P. Solomon in little more than a year's time.
Popular songs: "The March of the Men of Harlech" ("Gorhoffedd Gwyr Harlech") is published without words at London. The song was allegedly composed during a siege of the Welsh castle in the 15th century Wars of the Roses.
Architect-inventor William Thornton is appointed commissioner of the Washington, D.C., and proceeds with construction of the Capitol building whose cornerstone was laid last year. Since Thornton knows nothing about building technology the competition's runner-up, Stephen Hallet, is appointed to supervise construction. Hallet will be dismissed for making too many changes in Thornton's design. Thornton himself will revise it next year. Irish-born Charleston architect James Hoban, 32, has won a $500 prize for his design of the city's executive mansion in a public competition that was probably rigged. he will succeed Hallet, and other architects will make subsequent changes (see 1800; Latrobe, 1803).
A British naval squadron tests the scurvy-prevention theories of James Lind, who dies at Gosport, Hampshire, July 13 at age 78 (see 1747; 1753). The Royal Navy vessels sail for Madras with their hatches full of lemons and arrive 23 weeks later with only one seaman suffering from scurvy (see 1795).
General Bonaparte offers a prize of 12,000 francs to anyone who can invent a means of preserving food for long periods of time so that France's military and naval forces may be supplied on long campaigns (see Appert, 1795).
Paris has 500 restaurants (see Boulanger, 1765); many of its best chefs have long since fled the country, but only now do people other than royalty and aristocrats begin to enjoy the French cuisine that has developed since the arrival of Catherine de' Medici from Florence in 1533.
A Boston restorator opens in a 17th-century house at the northwest corner of Milk and Congress streets under the management of French refugee Julien (Jean-Baptiste Gilbert Payplat Julien), who introduces Bostonians to cheese fondue, truffles from Périgord, and a clear soup so delicious that news of it soon reaches another French refugee. Paris lawyer Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, 39, journeys from New York to Boston to sample consommé Julien and other examples of Julien's cuisine. Having won election 5 years ago as a deputy to the Assemblé Constituante Brillat-Savarin fled the Terror in 1792 after being threatened with punishment as a traitor to the republic. He went to Switzerland and England before voyaging to America and supports himself by giving language lessons and playing his violin in a New York theater orchestra. He will return to France in 1796 to become a judge in the court of appeal at Paris and will later be secretary to the general staff of the Army of the Republic in Germany (see food, 1825).
1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800
