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Philippines

(fĭl'ə-pēnz', fĭl'ə-pēnz')

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Philippines

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A country of eastern Asia consisting of the Philippine Islands, an archipelago in the western Pacific Ocean southeast of China. Inhabited by Malays and various indigenous groups, the islands were first sighted by Magellan's expedition in 1521 and were colonized by the Spanish after 1565. They came under U.S. control in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. A commonwealth was created in 1935 and full independence achieved in 1946. The islands were occupied by Japan during much of World War II. Political turmoil led to the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos after 1965 and his exile in 1986 following the election of Corazón Aquino. Manila is the capital and the largest city. Population: 91,100,000.

Philippine Phil'ip·pine' adj.

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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Philippines

Island country, western Pacific Ocean, on an archipelago off the southeast coast of Asia. Area: 122,121 sq mi (316,294 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 84,191,000. Capital: Manila; Quezon City is the designated centre of national government. Filipinos are predominantly of Malay descent, frequently with Chinese and sometimes American or Spanish ancestry. Languages: Pilipino and English (both official); the other main groups are Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, and Bicol. Religions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant, other Christians); also Islam. Currency: Philippine peso. The Philippines consist of about 7,100 islands and islets. The two principal islands are Luzon in the north and Mindanao in the south. The Visayan group is in the central Philippines, Mindoro is directly south of Luzon, and Palawan is isolated in the west. The topography is varied; inactive volcanoes and mountain ranges are the main features of most of the larger islands. The country has a predominantly market economy based largely on agriculture, light industries, and services. The Philippines is a republic with two legislative houses; its chief of state and head of government is the president. First visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the islands were colonized by the Spanish, who retained control until the Philippines were ceded to the U.S. in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in 1935 to prepare the country for political and economic independence, which was delayed by World War II and the invasion of Japanese troops. The islands were liberated by U.S. forces in 1944 – 45, and the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed in 1946, with a government patterned on that of the U.S. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. He declared martial law in 1972, which lasted until 1981. After 20 years of dictatorial rule, Marcos was driven from power in 1986. Corazon Aquino became president and instituted a period of democratic rule that continued with the elections of subsequent presidents. The government has tried to come to terms with Muslim independence fighters in the southern islands by establishing the Muslim Mindanao autonomous region in southwestern Mindanao and nearby islands.

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US History Encyclopedia: Philippines

Discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the Philippine Islands were occupied by Spain from 1565 to 1898. This occupation was continuous, other than for a brief partial occupation by Great Britain from 1762 to 1764. As a result of the Spanish-American War, possession of the islands was assumed by the United States in 1898.

The Colonial Years

Spanish occupation introduced Christianity and western ideas in general to the Filipino people, while restricting the influence of Islam, primarily in Mindanao and nearby regions. After the United States assumed control of the islands, there was a greater focus on educational, commercial, and agricultural development of the Philippines, along with the introduction of democratic principles. Agitation for independence, which began under Spanish rule, continued in the Philippines under American control.

American interest in the Philippines was largely the result of a desire to expand the nation's economic influence into the Pacific and Asia. When the closing of the frontier seemed imminent by the 1890s, many Americans looked to Asia and the Pacific as golden opportunities to expand American trade and avoid future economic depressions like those of the past twenty-five years. American ambitions for trade, investment opportunities, and territory in East Asia, particularly China, were threatened by competition among the other great powers—England, France, Russia, Germany, and Japan. The Philippines were attractive because they could provide a military and commercial base from which the United States could protect its interests in China. As American relations with Spain deteriorated over the crisis in Cuba, the McKinley Administration saw an opportunity to deal with the situations in Asia and the Caribbean simultaneously.

On 1 May 1898, following the outbreak of war with Spain, Commodore George Dewey destroyed the aging Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. An American expeditionary force arrived in Manila seven months later, and Spain formally surrendered the city. After an armistice in August 1898, peace negotiations in Paris resulted in a treaty in December 1898 that ceded the Philippines to the United States in return for $20 million.

The acquisition of the Philippines gave rise to a protracted and bitter debate. Expansion into the Caribbean fit neatly into American perceptions of being the preeminent power in the Western hemisphere, but assuming control of a large, heavily populated territory thousands of miles away was a different and disquieting challenge. McKinley publicly claimed he had been opposed to acquiring the islands, but a night of reflection and prayer supposedly led him to conclude there was no alternative but to keep them. McKinley understood the Philippines would give the United States an Asian presence and make it easier to guard American interests there. Even so, McKinley was reluctant to assume responsibility for governing the islands, since there was a strong Filipino revolutionary army that had been fighting the Spanish and planned to govern the country. The president authorized Philippine acquisition, however, because he was concerned that another great power might seize the islands; because of the need to protect American commercial interests in Asia; and because he was convinced that the Filipinos could not govern themselves. While imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt applauded the decision and justified the move on the grounds that the United States had an obligation to teach the Filipinos self-government, others justified the action on the basis that the islands would be the American equivalent of Hong Kong, allowing the country to exploit trading opportunities throughout Asia and the East Indies. Many Republicans also recognized the political benefits of expansion, since it was a victorious war fought under a Republican administration.

But there was fierce opposition to acquisition of the Philippines. While the Senate debated ratification of the treaty, a strong anti-imperialist movement began to develop, which included some of the nation's most prominent citizens, including Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain. One anti-imperialist argument centered on the morality of imperialism, suggesting that it was a violation of an American commitment to human freedom. Others opposed it on racial grounds, fearing the admission of "inferior" Asian races into America. Some voiced concerns about cheap labor and cheap sugar flooding the domestic market, and the resources the country would have to expend to defend the new territories. Nevertheless, the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris on 6 February 1899, and the reelection of McKinley in 1900 seemed to indicate that the nation as a whole favored imperialism and the acquisition of the Philippines.

The country soon found itself embroiled in a much more difficult conflict than the one recently concluded with Spain. Filipino insurgents had been in rebellion against Spain before the Spanish-American War, and when the United States supplanted Spain, the revolutionaries directed their resistance against the new rulers. Generally ignored today, the Philippine War (1899–1901) was one of the bloodiest in American history. Some 200,000 American soldiers took part, and with 4,300 deaths, the United States suffered nearly ten times the fatalities of the Spanish-American War. The number of Filipinos who were killed remains uncertain but estimates range upward of fifty thousand. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, the rebels harassed the American occupation forces for more than three years. The guerrilla tactics used by the Filipinos prompted an increase in brutality on the part of American soldiers, who came to view the enemy as subhuman and who justified increasingly vicious and savage tactics to suppress the insurrection. Although the war continued into 1902, the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 signaled the turning point. Aguinaldo encouraged his supporters to stop fighting and proclaimed his allegiance to the United States, causing the rebellion to begin losing momentum. Although some fighting continued over the next four or five years, the United States had secured the islands.

At first, the military assumed responsibility for governing the Philippines. Then, during the summer of 1901, administrative authority was transferred to William Howard Taft, the first civilian governor of the territory. Taft promptly announced the intention of the United States to prepare the Filipinos for independence, and he permitted a good deal of local autonomy during his term of service. Taft established the Philippines Commission to serve as a legislative body, and a program of education was begun as well. American soldiers served as teachers until trained teachers could arrive from the United States.

American rule brought the construction of roadways, sanitary facilities and schools. Commerce, trade, and agriculture were given additional attention, and, in August 1907, the United States created the Philippine Assembly. Filipinos were given a majority of seats on the Philippine Commission under President Woodrow Wilson and gained greater autonomy during the administration of Francis Burton Harrison, the governor general from 1913 to 1921. The Jones Act of 1916 permitted the establishment of an elective senate and house of representatives to replace the Philippine Commission and Assembly. In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act mandated a ten-year transition to full independence for the Philippines.

As president, Theodore Roosevelt had referred to the Philippines as the Achilles heel of America in Asia and the Pacific, recognizing that the islands could be a tempting prize for another power such as Japan. With the Lansing-Ishii Agreement of 1917, the Wilson administration secured Japanese assurances that they had no ambitions regarding those islands. The Tydings-McDuffie Act, which promised the Philippines independence in ten years, can be further construed as an admission of American vulnerability there.

As population and economic pressures began to squeeze Japan in the late 1920s and early 1930s, that nation embarked on a program of expansion that led to war with China in 1937. That war had reached an impasse by 1941, leading the Japanese to decide on a southern strategy to secure the resources and markets of Southeast Asia and the East Indies. The United States had thus far given China limited support against Japan, but when Japan seized French Indochina in July 1941, the Roosevelt Administration placed a trade embargo on the Japanese. For the Japanese, this meant restoring good relations with the United States or proceeding with plans to secure the resources to the south. American efforts to get Japan out of China were unsuccessful, and the United States was unwilling to accept anything less. From The Japanese perspective, it seemed that the only option was to consider war with the United States. The location of the Philippine Islands further strengthened the possibility of war from Japan's point of view. The Philippines would make it easy for the United States to interdict shipments of vital raw materials from the East Indies. Therefore, to assure those materials would arrive safely in Japan, the Philippines would have to be taken as well, making war with the United States all the more unavoidable.

Ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese warplanes struck American air bases in Manila, destroying the small air force of General Douglas MacArthur while it was still on the ground. Perhaps more from ego than sensible military judgment, MacArthur fought the Japanese invaders with an inadequate army, suffering the loss of most of his forces. American and Filipino forces on Corregidor Island held out until 6 May 1942; the captured survivors were led on the infamous "death march" to prison camps. MacArthur, meanwhile, had escaped to Australia after promising to return to liberate the Philippines. Japan set up a puppet government in October 1943, with Jose Laurel as president.

In October 1944, MacArthur did return to the Philippines, along with 200,000 American troops. A combination of bad weather and fanatical Japanese defenders slowed the progress of the invasion, although the American navy decisively defeated the Japanese navy at Leyte Gulf. In February 1945, MacArthur fought a terribly destructive battle for Manila that cost the lives of more than a hundred thousand Filipino civilians. The Philippines were finally liberated on 5 July 1945.

Independence and the Struggle for Autonomy

One year later, 4 July 1946, the United States formally granted the Philippine Islands their independence, with Manuel Roxas as the new nation's first president. This was the first time an imperial power had ever voluntarily relinquished its possession of a colony. Independence, however, did not mean an end to Philippine dependence on the United States, nor was the U.S. willing to cut its ties completely. Concerned about the ability of the Philippines to recover from the ravages of the war, and with the growing exigencies of the Cold War, the United States soon incorporated the islands into its expanding military and economic fold. On 17 March 1947, the United States concluded an agreement with the Philippines that gave the United States leases on military bases there for ninety-nine years. The United States also monitored the Filipino government, often urging reforms that would end corruption and mismanagement. The Philippines would remain an important location for American air force and naval bases until the early 1990s. American loans, foreign aid, and trade agreements helped support the Philippine economy. A security pact between the United States and the Philippines was signed on 30 August 1951.

The war in Vietnam and continued American presence in the Philippines led to anti-American protests and riots in Manila and elsewhere in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These contributed to the autocracy of Ferdinand Marcos, who, in his second term as president, declared martial law and established a dictatorship in 1972. Although American investments and economic interests in the islands had fallen behind those of the Japanese and Taiwanese, the importance of the American military bases there led the Nixon and Ford administrations to keep silent about the end of democracy in the Philippines.

Increasing criticism of the government in the mid-1970s led to greater repression by Marcos; the policy of the United States was to turn a blind eye in that direction. Unwilling to risk talks about the military bases, the administration of Jimmy Carter carefully avoided criticizing the human rights record of Marcos, despite killings by the Philippine military and the imprisonment of thousands. The Carter administration reached a new accord regarding American military bases with the Marcos regime in 1979, and American economic support continued as well.

Growing unrest in the Philippines created a problem for the Reagan administration. Despite Marcos's repressive regime, Reagan liked the Philippine leader personally, having met him first in 1969, and continued to support him because of the Cold War. But the 1983 assassination of Benigno Aquino, Marcos's chief political opponent, made it clear that American strategic and economic interests were in jeopardy. A significant American financial commitment remained in place, while strategic interests dictated keeping Clark Air Field and the Subic Bay Naval Station, both of which were under leases granted by Marcos and due to expire in 1991. Marcos was pressured to implement badly needed reforms, but the Filipino leader continued his repressive ways. This led to more protests, the revival of a communist insurgency by a Maoist group called the Nationalist People's Army, and renewed attacks by Muslim guerillas.

Marcos tried to win back American support by staging elections in February 1986, which he intended to control. The opposition candidate was Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her calls for reform drew widespread support. Relying on massive election fraud, Marcos claimed victory, which was at first upheld by the Reagan White House. But the fraudulent nature of the election was so obvious that the administration had to back off from its support of Marcos when it became evident that any attempt by Marcos to stay in power would result in civil war. Reagan began to urge Marcos to step aside. Marcos finally gave in to American pressure and fled to Hawaii on an American Air Force transport. Corazon Aquino became president of the Philippines.

Although she reestablished democratic institutions, Aquino could not solve the economic problems of her country. Nor could she win the support of the military and the Filipino elite, halt the rampant corruption, or stem the communist insurgency that had now spread to nearly every province. She did implement some political and economic reforms, survived more than a half dozen coup attempts, and supported the 1992 election of her successor, General Fidel Ramos, one of the early defectors from Marcos. Ramos attempted to revitalize the economy, eliminate corruption, and attract foreign investors.

American strategic influence in the Philippines began to diminish in the 1990s. American financial aid stopped almost completely, partly because of domestic economic woes in the first part of the decade. Clark Air Force Base was abandoned after it was destroyed by a volcanic eruption, and, when no agreement on acceptable financial compensation could be reached, the Philippine Senate refused to renew the lease on the naval base at Subic Bay. These actions gave the country greater autonomy, while reflecting its lessened importance in American foreign policy.

A twenty-four-year insurrection led by the Moro National Liberation Front came to an end in 1996, with the signing of a peace accord that would grant the movement greater independence in many of that island's provinces. However, a splinter group, the militant Moro Islamic Liberation Front, rejected the agreement and continued to resist the government.

Joseph Estrada, a popular, though politically inexperienced motion picture actor, replaced Ramos as president in 1996. Elected on promises that he would revive the economy, Estrada headed a corrupt administration. Impeached in 2000 and brought to trial on charges of taking bribes from gambling syndicates, Estrada and his supporters tried to block the prosecutor's access to his financial records in order to delay or end his trial. This led to mass demonstrations that forced Estrada to resign in January 2001. His successor, Gloria Arroyo, promised to wipe out poverty and corruption and refused to grant Estrada amnesty for his alleged crimes. The Arroyo regime struggled to establish its political qualifications, revitalize the country, and deal with Islamic rebel groups, such as the Abu Sayyaf separatists. Just one of many Muslim separatist groups that have been fighting for independence for thirty years or more in Mindanao, the group has been accused of associations with the Al Qaeda network. As of 2002, the Philippine army was still fighting these rebels with assistance from the United States.

Bibliography

Gleeck, Lewis Jr. General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century. Quezon City, R.P.: Garcia. 1984.

Golay, Frank. Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898–1946. Madison, Wis.: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1997.

Hahn, Emily. The Islands: America's Imperial Adventure in the Philippines. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan. 1981.

Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. New York: Ballantine, 1990.

McFerson, Hazel M. ed. Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. 2002.

Roth, Russell. Muddy Glory: America's "Indian Wars" in the Philippines, 1898–1935. West Hanover, Conn.: Christopher, 1981.

Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974.

Welch, Richard E., Jr. Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1979.

Columbia Encyclopedia: The Philippines

(fĭl'əpēnz') , officially Republic of the Philippines, republic (2005 est. pop. 87,857,000), 115,830 sq mi (300,000 sq km), SW Pacific, in the Malay Archipelago off the SE Asia mainland. It comprises over 7,000 islands and rocks, of which only c.400 are permanently inhabited. The 11 largest islands—Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and Masbate—contain about 95% of the total land area. The northernmost point of land, the islet of Y'Ami in the Batan Islands, is separated from Taiwan by the Bashi Channel (c.50 mi/80 km wide). Manila, on Luzon, is the capital, the largest city, and the heart of the country.

Land

The Philippines extend 1,152 mi (1,855 km) from north to south, between Taiwan and Borneo, and 688 mi (1,108 km) from east to west, and are bounded by the Philippine Sea on the east, the Celebes Sea on the south, and the South China Sea on the west. They comprise three natural divisions—the northern, which includes Luzon and attendant islands; the central, occupied by the Visayan Islands and Palawan and Mindoro; and the southern, encompassing Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. In addition to Manila, other important centers are Quezon City, also on Luzon; Cebu, on Cebu Island; Iloilo, on Panay; Davao and Zamboanga, on Mindanao; and Jolo, on Jolo Island in the Sulu Archipelago.

The Philippines are chiefly of volcanic origin. Most of the larger islands are traversed by mountain ranges, with Mt. Apo (9,690 ft/2,954 m), on Mindanao, the highest peak. Narrow coastal plains, wide valleys, volcanoes, dense forests, and mineral and hot springs further characterize the larger islands. Earthquakes are common. Of the navigable rivers, Cagayan, on Luzon, is the largest; there are also large lakes on Luzon and Mindanao.

The Philippines are entirely within the tropical zone. Manila, with a mean daily temperature of 79.5°F (26. 4°C), is typical of the climate of the lowland areas—hot and humid. The highlands, however, have a bracing climate; e.g., Baguio, the summer capital, on Luzon, has a mean annual temperature of 64°F (17.8°C). The islands are subject to typhoons, whose torrential rains can cause devastating floods; 5,000 people died on Leyte in 1991 from such flooding, and several storms in 2004 and 2006 caused deadly flooding and great destruction.

People

The great majority of the people of the Philippines belong to the Malay group and are known as Filipinos. Other groups include the Negritos (negroid pygmies) and the Dumagats (similar to the Papuans of New Guinea), and there is a small Chinese minority. The Filipinos live mostly in the lowlands and constitute one of the largest Christian groups in Asia. Roman Catholicism is professed by over 80% of the population; 5% are Muslims (concentrated on Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago; see Moros); about 2% are Aglipayans, members of the Philippine Independent Church, a nationalistic offshoot of Catholicism (see Aglipay, Gregorio); and there are Protestant and Evangelical groups. The official languages are Pilipino, based on Tagalog, and English; however, some 70 native languages are also spoken.

Economy

With their tropical climate, heavy rainfall, and naturally fertile volcanic soil, the Philippines have a strong agricultural sector, which employs over a third of the population. Sugarcane, coconuts, rice, corn, bananas, cassava, pineapples, and mangoes are the most important crops, and tobacco and coffee are also grown. Carabao (water buffalo), pigs, chickens, goats, and ducks are widely raised, and there is dairy farming. Fishing is a common occupation; the Sulu Archipelago is noted for its pearls and mother-of-pearl.

The islands have one of the world's greatest stands of commercial timber. There are also mineral resources such as petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, copper, zinc, chromite, and iron ore. Nonmetallic minerals include rock asphalt, gypsum, asbestos, sulfur, and coal. Limestone, adobe, and marble are quarried.

Manufacturing is concentrated in metropolitan Manila, near the nation's prime port, but there has been considerable industrial growth on Cebu, Negros, and Mindanao. Garments, footwear, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and wood products are manufactured, and the assembly of electronics and automobiles is important. Other industries include food processing and petroleum refining. The former U.S. military base at Subic Bay was redeveloped in the 1990s as a free-trade zone.

The economy has nonetheless remained weak, and many Filipinos have sought employment overseas; remittances from an estimated 8 million Filipinos abroad are economically important. Chief exports are semiconductors, electronics, transportation equipment, clothing, copper, petroleum products, coconut oil, fruits, lumber and plywood, machinery, and sugar. The main imports are electronic products, mineral fuels, machinery, transportation equipment, iron and steel, textiles, grains, chemicals, and plastic. The chief trading partners are the United States, Japan, China, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.

Government

The Philippines is governed under the constitution of 1987. The president, who is both head of state and head of the government, is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term. There is a bicameral legislature, the Congress. Members of the 24-seat Senate are popularly elected for six-year terms. The House of Representatives consists of not more than 250 members, who are popularly elected for three-year terms. There is an independent judiciary headed by a supreme court. Administratively, the republic is divided into 79 provinces and 117 chartered cities.

History

Early History

The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.

In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.

Spanish Control

The conquest of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi, arrived. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. By 1571, when López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold in the Philippines was secure, despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.

Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese).

The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a flourishing trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly laden galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Moros. Intermittent campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and acquired great amounts of property.

Revolution, War, and U.S. Control

It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.

After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey supplied Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old walled city of Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had also declared their independence and established a republic under the first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War.

In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield, the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United States—one that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American War. The insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but the question of Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic ties between the two countries. Although comparatively little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913.

When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to effect a smooth transition to self-rule. The Philippine assembly already had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house as well, with power to approve all appointments made by the governor-general. It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of independence, although no specific date was set.

When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing Filipinos into the government was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino activities with a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward the granting of immediate independence to the Philippines.

The Commonwealth

The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision. The bill had been drawn up with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader of the dominant Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American tariffs against Philippine products but principally because of the provisions leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act (1934) closely resembled the Hare-Howes-Cutting-Act, but struck the provisions for American bases and carried a promise of further study to correct “imperfections or inequalities.”

The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935) was accepted by the Philippine people in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president (Sept.). When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov., 1941. To develop defensive forces against possible aggression, Gen. Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in 1935, and the following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth army.

World War II

War came suddenly to the Philippines on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan attacked without warning. Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer drive on Manila. MacArthur's scattered defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) were forced to withdraw to Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied Manila on Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar. 11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.

The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from Corregidor with a garrison of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his capitulation, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.

Japan's efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14, 1943) of a “Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former supreme court justice, as president. But the people suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support. Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington. When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president. Osmeña returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes against Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.

The landing was followed (Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the battle of Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively destroyed the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands. Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced “All the Philippines are now liberated.” The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.

The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941. It faced enormous problems. The land was devastated by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña's leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.

The Republic of the Philippines

Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the Philippines when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar., 1947, the Philippines and the United States signed a military assistance pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the United States a 99-year lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement reduced the period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in Nov., 1949, Quirino defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of his own.

The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated by the activities in central Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in their efforts to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were largely brought under control (1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. The Huks continued to function, however, until 1970, and other Communist guerrilla groups have persisted in their opposition to the Philippine government. Magsaysay defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953, to win the presidency. He had promised sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform, opening new settlements outside crowded Luzon island. His death in an airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national morale. Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as president in the elections of Nov., 1957.

In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist policy and joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. There were difficulties with the United States over American military installations in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine sovereignty over these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease period was reduced. The United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade revisions.

Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption and anti-Americanism led, in June, 1959, to the union of the Liberal and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdad Macapagal, the Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961 elections. Macapagal's administration was marked by efforts to combat the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since its birth; by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial dispute with Britain over North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North Borneo Company in 1878.

Marcos and After

Ferdinand E. Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in 1968 he approved a congressional bill annexing Sabah to the Philippines. Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations. (The Philippines dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations and acts of terror, and in 1969, Marcos began a major military campaign to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao, where groups of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an unprecedented reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the election was accompanied by violence and charges of fraud, and Marcos's second term began with increasing civil disorder.

In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malcañang Palace, the presidential residence; riots erupted against the U.S. embassy. When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was made on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown at the speakers' platform, and several people were killed. President Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972, charging that a Communist rebellion threatened, and opposition to Marcos's government did swell the ranks of Communist guerrilla groups, which continued to grow into the mid-1980s. The 1935 constitution was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided the president with direct powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in office beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the fighting on Mindanao had spread to the Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some 3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned. Throughout the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda Marcos, Ferdinand's wife, became more influential.

Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected, amid accusations of electoral fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which incited a new, more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential election, both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of Benigno), declared themselves the winner, and charges of massive fraud and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos's domestic and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25, 1986, eventually obtaining asylum in the United States.

Aquino's government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts, significant economic difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were evacuated in 1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially autonomous Muslim region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by her former army chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization plan premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased private investment, and political solutions to the continuing insurgencies within the country. His political program was somethat successful, opening dialogues with the Marxist and Muslim guerillas. Although Muslim unrest and violence continued into the 21st cent, the government signed a peace accord with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in 1996, which led to an expansion of the autonomous region in 2001.

Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on Luzon and a succession of severe typhoons, slowed the country's economic progress in the 1990s. The Philippines, however, escaped much of the economic turmoil seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following a slower pace of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund. Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie actor, was elected president in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order to remove protectionist provisions and attract more foreign investment.

Late in 2000, Estrada's presidency was buffetted by charges that he accepted millions of dollars in payoffs from illegal gambling operations. Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained strong, many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign. In Nov., 2000, Estrada was impeached by the house of representatives on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada's allies, provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president's bank records. As demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped him of the presidency, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada's successor. Estrada was indicted on charges of corruption in April, and his supporters attempted to storm the presidential palace in May. In Sept., 2007, he was convicted of corruption and sentenced to life imprisonment, but Estrada, who had been under house arrest since 2001, was pardoned the following month by President Macapagal-Arroyo.

A second Muslim rebel group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), agreed to a cease-fire in June, 2001, but fighting with fundamentalist Islamic guerrillas continued, and there was a MNLF uprising on Jolo in November. Following the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the U.S. government provided (2002) training and assistance to Philippine troops fighting the guerrillas. In 2003 fighting with the MILF again escalated, despite pledges by both sides that they would negotiate and exercise restraint; however, a truce was declared in July. In the same month several hundred soldiers were involved in a mutiny in Manila that the government claimed was part of a coup attempt.

Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after the election. A series of four devastating storms during November and December killed as many as 1,000 in the country's north and east, particularly on Luzon. In early 2005 heavy fighting broke out on Mindanao between government forces and a splinter group of MILF rebels, and there was also fighting with a MNLF splinter group in Jolo.

In June, 2005, the president was beset by a vote-rigging charge based on a tape of a conversation she had with an election official. She denied the allegation while acknowledging that she had been recorded and apologizing for what she called a lapse in judgment, but the controversy combined with other scandals (including allegations that her husband and other family members had engaged in influence peddling and received bribes) to create a national crisis. Promising government reform, she asked (July) her cabinet to resign, and several cabinet members subsequently called on Macapagal-Arroyo to resign (as did Corazon Aquino). At the same time the supreme court suspended sales tax increases that had been enacted in May as part of a tax reform package designed to reduce the government's debt. In August and September the president survived an opposition move to impeach her when her opponents failed to muster the votes needed to force a trial in the senate.

In Feb., 2006, the government engaged in talks, regarded as a prelude to formal peace negotiations, with the MILF, and dicussions between the two sides continued in subsequent months. Late in the month, President Macapagal-Arroyo declared a weeklong state of emergency when a coup plot against her was discovered. Intended to coincide with the 20th anniversary celebrations of the 1986 demonstrations that brought down Ferdinand Marcos, the coup was said to have involved several army generals and left-wing legislators. The state of emergency was challenged in court and upheld after the fact, but the supreme court declared aspects of the emergency's enforcement unconstitutional.

In October the supreme court declared a move to revise the constitution through a “people's initiative,” replacing the presidential system of government with a parliamentary one, unconstitutional, but the government only abandoned its attempt to revise the constitution in December after the Roman Catholic church attacked an attempt by the house of representatives to call a constituent assembly and by the opposition-dominated senate. In 2006 there was fierce fighting on Jolo between government forces and Islamic militants; it continued into 2007, and there were also clashes in Basilan and Mindanao.

In Jan., 2007, a government commission blamed many of the more than 800 deaths of activists during Macapagal-Arroyo's presidency on the military. The president promised action in response to the report, but the chief of the armed forces denounced the report as unfair and strained. Congressional elections in May, 2007, were marred by fraud allegations and by violence during the campaign; the voting left the opposition in control of the senate and Macapagal-Arroyo's allies in control of the house.

Bibliography

See E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson, ed., The Philippine Islands, 1493–1888 (55 vol., 1903–9; Vol. LIII, Bibliography); L. Morton, The Fall of the Philippines (1953); T. Friend, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929–1946 (1965); E. G. Maring and J. M. Maring, Historical and Cultural Dictionary of the Philippines (1973); B. D. Romulo, Inside the Palace: The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos (1987); S. Burton, Impossible Dream: The Marcoses, the Aquinos, and the Unfinished Revolution (1988); D. J. Steinberg, The Philippines (1988); D. Wurfel, Filipino Politics (1988); S. Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (1989); B. M. Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902 (1989).

Psychoanalysis: Philippines

The U.S. dominance of the university educational system in the Philippines in the early decades of the twentieth century meant that Filipino doctors looked to that country for its medical models. Several physicians studied in the United States and imbibed psychoanalytic theory from the American tradition.

One of the first was Virgilio Santiago, who completed his medical training at the University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines in 1949. This medical training led him to psychoanalytic training under Robert Waelder, a student of Freud's. He then went on to study at the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas. This was an unusual route to follow, since most psychiatrists were trained in the dominant organic school of psychiatry. In the 1950s psychoanalysis was strictly forbidden by the conservative Catholic clergy. Santiago was also discouraged by his colleagues from pursuing the field. Nonetheless, in a private practice he found a clientele among the expatriate population, and a small minority of Filipinos suffering from psychosis also consulted him. Santiago's general criticisms of the poor quality of Filipino health care suggest that the average Filipino was unsuited to psychoanalysis (Santiago, 1966).

Two other early pioneers were Baltazar Reyes and Rudolfo Varias. Reyes graduated from the University of the Philippines and then did postgraduate training at the Langley Porter Institute in California before returning to the Philippines to teach and research. Varias trained in classic psychoanalysis in New York. He returned to teach at the institute of public hygiene (now the College of Public Health). In the 1970s he returned to New York. His departure meant no further development of psychoanalytic psychotherapy at that time.

Not until the end of the 1960s, with the appearance of Lourdes Lapuz's A Study of Psychopathology (1969), was orthodox psychoanalytic theory again taken seriously. This groundbreaking book influenced a whole generation of psychiatrists, psychologists, and counselors, who remodeled the original psychoanalytic theory in which they had been instructed to suit the Filipino cultural mold. As in other Asian cultures, people's social and cultural expectations led them to view the doctor as an authority figure, and this required a more interactive role of the analyst. This book was followed by Children of Oedipus (Lapuz, 1973), which deals more fully with these issues. In her succeeding works she dealt with marital counseling and couple and family therapy (Lapuz, 1979).

In spite of these developments, however, the modern mental-health system remains poorly understood in the Philippines because of the low level of medical awareness of the population and the prevalence of alternatives to modern medicine, be they indigenous forms of herbal healing or even cult healing practices. These factors, coupled with a poor health-insurance system and a social need for gainful employment, have reduced the need for formal institutes of psychoanalysis and explain why the Philippines at the moment has no training analysts practicing psychoanalysis. Freud's work has not made a big impact in this predominately Catholic culture, where even today, teaching human sexuality from the point of view of psychology has not gained much ground in the academic world. Sex education consists largely of lectures on population control.

Bibliography

Estrada-Cristanto, T. (1997). Interview with Virgilio Santiago. November. Manila, Philippines. Unpublished.Lapuz, Lourdes. (1969). A study of psychopathology. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Lapuz, Lourdes. (1973). Children of Oedipus. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

——. (1979). Marriage counselling. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Santiago, Virgilio. (1966). Psychopathology of Sisa. ActaMedica Philippina, 2 (3), 140-145.

—GEOFFREY H. BLOWERS

History 1450-1789: Spanish Colonies: The Philippines

This entry is a subtopic of Spanish Colonies.

The powerful nations of Europe undertook a global project of imperialism and colonization in the late fifteenth century. Spain and Portugal, followed by other European states, used religion as a motivating force for economic expansion. As a result of Europe's conquests and attempted conquests, the Americas and large segments of Asia were eventually subjugated and annexed as European possessions or outposts. Following Columbus's expeditions to America, Cortés's conquest of Mexico in 1519, and Magellan's "discovery" of the Philippines in 1521, a series of unsuccessful Spanish attempts to colonize the Philippine archipelago took place. It was not until 1565 that the first permanent Spanish settlement succeeded under Miguel López de Legazpi, a minor Spanish official in Mexico. It remained part of the Spanish empire until 1898.

On 13 February 1565, an expedition set out from New Spain (Mexico), reaching Gamay Bay off Samar Island, then proceeding to touch at Leyte, Camiguin, Bohol, and finally Cebu on 27 April. In May 1571 the group of settlers moved to Manila. Thereupon, Juan de Salcedo conducted an expedition of conquest around Laguna de Bay and down the Cagayan River. Martín de Goiti and one hundred soldiers penetrated the center of the island of Luzon. After 1571, Manila became the center of Spanish colonization. The original Spanish incentives to occupy the Philippines were control of the spice trade and control of Pacific trade routes. However, the Philippines were too far from the spice routes, and other European powers never acknowledged Spanish hegemony in the Pacific Ocean.

The Spanish home government set up a jurisdiction that placed the Philippines under the rule of the viceroy of Mexico. Like the Americas, the archipelago had a governor-general, an audiencia ('advisors and court'), and a cabildo ('town council') for the city of Manila. In the areas outside of Manila, alcaldías ('provinces') were organized, with an alcalde mayor ('provincial governor') as head.

What proved to be the major cultural force in the archipelago were the religious orders. Augustinians, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Franciscans were the frontline representatives of Western culture who indoctrinated and converted local peoples. They were followed by the secular clergy, who gradually took over the task of ensuring that the new converts to Christianity did not "relapse." Although the archipelago consists of almost seven thousand islands, not all were inhabited or came under Spanish rule. The southernmost parts of the archipelago were Muslim and remained so throughout Spanish occupation. As Christianity was extended throughout the islands, the Western value system it represented was incorporated into the native Malay society.

Local income from the tribute taxes imposed by the Spaniards was so low that it soon became clear that the maintenance of the Philippine archipelago as a colony in the Pacific was a financial drain on the Spanish Empire, and retaining the colony as the only Christian outpost in Asia became the new motivating force. The economy of the islands was in the hands of the "Manila Galleon," merchants who loaded a large ship with Asian luxury items each year and sold them in Acapulco, Mexico. On its return the Manila Galleon carried silver pesos.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a concentrated effort was made to develop agriculture and mining under the Bourbon dynasty. In the nineteenth century the external trade of the islands grew considerably, sparked by capital growth, large-scale imports of raw materials, and a rising population. English and American vessels unloaded wines, copper, nails, oil, and other manufactured goods, and in return carried away hemp, sugar, tobacco, and rice.

Spain's long colonial rule produced deep-rooted changes in Philippine society. Christianity, foreign commerce, and new political and economic relations, as well as new concepts of land use and land distribution, affected native society profoundly.

Bibliography

Cushner, Nicholas P. Spain in the Philippines: From Conquest to Revolution. Quezon City, Philippines, and Rutland, Vt., 1971.

Lyon, Eugene. "The Manila Galleon." National Geographic (January 1998).

Phelan, John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700. Madison, Wis., 1959.

Wickberg, Edgar. The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850–1898. Manila, Philippines, 2000.

—NICHOLAS P. CUSHNER

Geography: Philippines

Republic in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, comprising over seven thousand islands. Its capital and largest city is Manila.

The Spanish held control of the islands until 1898, when they were transferred to the United States after the Spanish-American War.
Named for Philip II, king of Spain during the sixteenth century.
Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, the islands were liberated by Allied troops under General Douglas MacArthur.
Although Philippine independence had long been an important political issue, the country did not gain full independence until 1946.
The country was under the virtual dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 until 1986, when he was forced into exile in the United States.
It continues to be plagued by allegations of corruption in high places and by a Muslim insurgency.

Dialing Code: Philippines

The international dialing code for Philippines is: 63

Maps: Philippines

Local Time: Philippines

Local Time: Dec 2, 10:42 AM

Currency: Philippine

Philippine Peso

Statistics: Philippines

Introduction

Background:

The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a 10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese occupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power" movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2") demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace accord with one group and an ongoing cease-fire and peace talks with another.

Geography

Location:	Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam
Geographic coordinates:	13 00 N, 122 00 E
Map references:	Southeast Asia
Area:	total: 300,000 sq km land: 298,170 sq km water: 1,830 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly larger than Arizona
Land boundaries:	0 km
Coastline:	36,289 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: irregular polygon extending up to 100 nm from coastline as defined by 1898 treaty; since late 1970s has also claimed polygonal-shaped area in South China Sea up to 285 nm in breadth exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
Climate:	tropical marine; northeast monsoon (November to April); southwest monsoon (May to October)
Terrain:	mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Philippine Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Apo 2,954 m
Natural resources:	timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
Land use:	arable land: 19% permanent crops: 16.67% other: 64.33% (2005)
Irrigated land:	15,500 sq km (2003)
Natural hazards:	astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis
Environment - current issues:	uncontrolled deforestation especially in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in major urban centers; coral reef degradation; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Geography - note:	the Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands; favorably located in relation to many of Southeast Asia's main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait

People

Population:	91,077,287 (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 34.5% (male 16,043,257/female 15,415,334) 15-64 years: 61.3% (male 27,849,584/female 28,008,293) 65 years and over: 4.1% (male 1,631,866/female 2,128,953) (2007 est.)
Median age:	total: 22.7 years male: 22.2 years female: 23.3 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.764% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:	24.48 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:	5.36 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:	-1.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.041 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.994 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.767 male(s)/female total population: 0.999 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 22.12 deaths/1,000 live births male: 24.85 deaths/1,000 live births female: 19.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 70.51 years male: 67.61 years female: 73.55 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:	3.05 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	less than 0.1% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	9,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	less than 500 (2003 est.)
Major infectious diseases:	degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria are high risks in some locations animal contact disease: rabies (2007)
Nationality:	noun: Filipino(s) adjective: Philippine
Ethnic groups:	Tagalog 28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Bisaya/Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon Ilonggo 7.5%, Bikol 6%, Waray 3.4%, other 25.3% (2000 census)
Religions:	Roman Catholic 80.9%, Muslim 5%, Evangelical 2.8%, Iglesia ni Kristo 2.3%, Aglipayan 2%, other Christian 4.5%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.6%, none 0.1% (2000 census)
Languages:	Filipino (official; based on Tagalog) and English (official); eight major dialects - Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Bicol, Waray, Pampango, and Pangasinan
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.6% male: 92.5% female: 92.7% (2000 census)

Government

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of the Philippines conventional short form: Philippines local long form: Republika ng Pilipinas local short form: Pilipinas
Government type:	republic
Capital:	name: Manila geographic coordinates: 14 35 N, 121 00 E time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:	81 provinces and 136 chartered cities provinces: Abra, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Aklan, Albay, Antique, Apayao, Aurora, Basilan, Bataan, Batanes, Batangas, Biliran, Benguet, Bohol, Bukidnon, Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Camiguin, Capiz, Catanduanes, Cavite, Cebu, Compostela, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Dinagat Islands, Eastern Samar, Guimaras, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo, Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, La Union, Leyte, Maguindanao, Marinduque, Masbate, Mindoro Occidental, Mindoro Oriental, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Mountain Province, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, North Cotabato, Northern Samar, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Romblon, Samar, Sarangani, Shariff Kabunsuan, Siquijor, Sorsogon, South Cotabato, Southern Leyte, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Tarlac, Tawi-Tawi, Zambales, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay chartered cities: Alaminos, Angeles, Antipolo, Bacolod, Bago, Baguio, Bais, Balanga, Batac, Batangas, Bayawan, Baybay, Bayugan, Bislig, Bogo, Borongan, Butuan, Cabadbaran, Cabanatuan, Cadiz, Cagayan de Oro, Calamba, Calapan, Calbayog, Candon, Canlaon, Carcar, Catbalogan, Cauayan, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, Dagupan, Danao, Dapitan, Davao, Digos, Dipolog, Dumaguete, Escalante, El Salvador, Gapan, General Santos, Gingoog, Guihulngan, Himamaylan, Iligan, Iloilo, Isabela, Iriga, Kabankalan, Kalookan, Kidapawan, Koronadal, La Carlota, Lamitan, Laoag, Lapu-Lapu, Las Pinas, Legazpi, Ligao, Lipa, Lucena, Maasin, Makati, Malabon, Malaybalay, Malolos, Mandaluyong, Mandaue, Manila, Marawi, Marikina, Masbate, Mati, Meycauayan, Muntinlupa, Munoz, Naga (Camarines Sur), Naga (Cebu), Navotas, Olongapo, Ormoc, Oroquieta, Ozamis, Pagadian, Palayan, Panabo, Paranaque, Pasay, Pasig, Passi, Puerto Princesa, Quezon, Roxas, Sagay, Samal, San Carlos (in Negros Occidental), San Carlos (in Pangasinan), San Fernando (in La Union), San Fernando (in Pampanga), San Jose, San Jose del Monte, San Juan, San Pablo, Santa Rosa, Santiago, Silay, Sipalay, Sorsogon, Surigao, Tabaco, Tabuk, Tacloban, Tacurong, Tagaytay, Tagbilaran, Taguig, Tagum, Talisay (in Cebu), Talisay (in Negros Occidental), Tanauan, Tandag, Tangub, Tanjay, Tarlac, Tayabas, Toledo, Tuguegarao, Trece Martires, Urdaneta, Valencia, Valenzuela, Victorias, Vigan, Zamboanga (2007)
Independence:	12 June 1898 (independence proclaimed from Spain); 4 July 1946 (from the US)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 12 June (1898); note - 12 June 1898 was date of declaration of independence from Spain; 4 July 1946 was date of independence from US
Constitution:	2 February 1987, effective 11 February 1987
Legal system:	based on Spanish and Anglo-American law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001); note - president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with consent of Commission of Appointments elections: president and vice president (Manuel "Noli" DE CASTRO) elected on separate tickets by popular vote for a single six-year term; election last held on 10 May 2004 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO elected president; percent of vote - Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO 40%, Fernando POE 37%, three others 23%
Legislative branch:	bicameral Congress or Kongreso consists of the Senate or Senado (24 seats - one-half elected every three years; members elected at large by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Kapulungan Ng Mga Kinatawan (as a result of May 2007 election it has 237 seats including 218 members representing districts and 19 sectoral party-list members representing special minorities elected on the basis of 1 seat for every 2% of the total vote but limited to 3 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms; note - the Constitution prohibits the House of Representatives from having more than 250 members) elections: Senate - last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010); House of Representatives - elections last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Nacionalista 4, LP 4, Lakas 3, GO 3, independent 1, others 8; note - there are 23 rather than 24 sitting senators because one senator was elected mayor of Manila; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lakas 86, Kampi 41, NPC 27, LP 21, others 62
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court (15 justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until 70 years of age); Court of Appeals; Sandigan-bayan (special court for hearing corruption cases of government officials)
Political parties and leaders:	Genuine Opposition or GO (coalition of oppositon parties formed to contest the 2007 elections); Kabalikat Ng Malayang Pilipino or Kampi [Ronaldo PUNO]; Laban Ng Demokratikong Pilipino (Struggle of Filipino Democrats) or LDP [Edgardo ANGARA]; Lakas Ng Edsa (National Union of Christian Democrats) or Lakas [Jose DE VENECIA]; Liberal Party or LP [Manuel ROXAS/Eli QUINTO]; Nacionalista [Manuel VILLAR]; National People's Coalition or NPC [Frisco SAN JUAN]; PDP-Laban [Aquilino PIMENTEL]; People's Reform Party [Miriam Defensor SANTIAGO]; PROMDI [Emilio OSMENA]; Pwersa Ng Masang Pilipino (Party of the Philippine Masses) or PMP [Joseph ESTRADA]; Reporma [Renato DE VILLA]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	AKBAYAN [Etta ROSALES, Mario AGUJA, and Risa HONTIVEROS-BARAQUIEL]; ALAGAD [Rodante MARROLITA]; ALIF [Acmad TOMAWIS]; An Waray [Horencio NOEL]; Anak Mindanao [Mujiv HATAMIN]; ANAKPAWIS [Crispin BELTRAN and Rafael MARIANO]; APEC [Ernesto PABLO, Edgar VALDEZ]; Association of Philippine Electric Cooperatives (APEC) [Edgar VALDEZ, Ernesto PABLO, and Sunny Rose MADAMBA]; AVE [Eulogio MAGSAYSAY]; Bayan Muna [Satur OCAMPO, Joel VIRADOR, and Teodoro CASINO, Jr.]; BUHAY [Rene VELARDE and Hans Christian SENERES]; BUTIL [Benjamin CRUZ]; CIBAC [Emmanuel Joel VILLANUEVA]; COOP-NATCO [Guillermo CUA]; GABRIELA [Liza MAZA]; Partido Ng Manggagawa [Renato MAGTUBO]; Veterans Federation of the Philippines [Ernesto GIDAYA]
International organization participation:	APEC, APT, ARF, AsDB, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS (observer), ONUB, OPCW, PIF (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Willy C. GAA chancery: 1600 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 467-9300 FAX: [1] (202) 467-9417 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco, Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), Tamuning (Guam)
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Kristie A. KENNEY embassy: 1201 Roxas Boulevard, Ermita 1000, Manila mailing address: PSC 500, FPO AP 96515-1000 telephone: [63] (2) 301-2000 FAX: [63] (2) 522-4361
Flag description:	two equal horizontal bands of blue (top; representing peace and justice) and red (representing courage); a white equilateral triangle based on the hoist side represents equality; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing one of the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star representing the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897; in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top

Economy

Economy - overview:	The Philippines was less severely affected by the Asian financial crisis of 1998 than its neighbors, aided in part by its high level of annual remittances from overseas workers, no sustained runup in asset prices, and more moderate debt, prior to the crisis. From a 0.6% decline in 1998, GDP expanded by 2.4% in 1999, and 4.4% in 2000, but slowed to 3.2% in 2001 in the context of a global economic slowdown, an export slump, and political and security concerns. Average GDP growth accelerated to about 5% between 2002 and 2006 reflecting the continued resilience of the service sector, and improved exports and agricultural output. Nonetheless, it will take a higher, sustained growth path to make appreciable progress in the alleviation of poverty given the Philippines' high annual population growth rate and unequal distribution of income. The Philippines also faces higher oil prices, higher interest rates on its dollar borrowings, and higher inflation. Fiscal constraints limit Manila's ability to finance infrastructure and social spending. The Philippines' consistently large budget deficit has produced a high debt level, and this situation has forced Manila to spend a large portion of the national government budget on debt service. Large unprofitable public enterprises, especially in the energy sector, contribute to the government's debt because of slow progress on privatization. Credit rating agencies have at times expressed concern about the Philippines' ability to service the debt, though central bank reserves appear adequate and large remittance inflows appear stable. The implementation of the expanded Value Added Tax (VAT) in November 2005 boosted confidence in the government's fiscal capacity and helped to strengthen the peso, making it East Asia's best performing currency in 2005-06. Investors and credit rating institutions will continue to look for effective implementation of the new VAT and continued improvement in the government's overall fiscal capacity in the coming year.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$449.8 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):	$116.9 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	5.4% (2006 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 14.1% industry: 31.6% services: 54.2% (2006 est.)
Labor force:	35.79 million (2006 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 36% industry: 15% services: 49% (2004 est.)