The term martyr (Greek μάρτυς "witness") initially signified a witness in the forensic sense, a person called to bear witness in
legal proceedings. With this meaning it was used in the secular sphere as well as in both the Old
Testament and the New Testament of the Bible.[1] The process of bearing witness was
not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g. Josephus) that witnesses, especially of the lower classes, were tortured routinely before being interrogated as
a means of forcing them to disclose the truth. During the early Christian centuries the term acquired the extended meaning of a
believer who witnesses to his or her religious belief and on account of this witness endures suffering and death. The term in the
English language is a loanword and used only with the extended meaning of someone who has been
killed for their religious belief. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom.
In the context of church history, from the time of the persecution of early
Christians in the Roman Empire, being a martyr indicates a person who is killed for
maintaining his or her religious belief, knowing that this will almost certainly result
in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death). Christian martyrs
sometimes declined to defend themselves at all, in what they see as an imitation of Jesus' willing sacrifice. However, the
definition of martyrdom is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith.
Usage of "martyr" is also not uncommon among Arab Christians (i.e. anyone killed in relation to Christianity or a Christian
community, e.g. Pierre Amine Gemayel), indicating that the English word "martyr"
may not actually be a proper equivalent of its commonly ascribed Arabic translation.
Though often religious in nature, martyrdom can be applied to a secular context as well.
The term is sometimes applied to those who use violence, such as those who die for a nation's glory during wartime. It may also
apply to nonviolent individuals who are killed or hurt in the struggle for independence,
civil rights etc (eg. Mahatma Gandhi).
The word "martyr" is also used ironically in casual conversation to refer to someone who seeks attention or sympathy by
exaggerating the impact upon himself of some deprivation or work.
In non-Christian religion
Judaism
- See also: Persecution of
Jews
Martyrdom in Judaism is referred to by the Hebrew phrase Kiddush Hashem, meaning
sanctification of God's name.
1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees recount numerous
martyrdoms suffered by Jews resisting the Hellenizing of their Seleucid overlords, being
executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath, circumcising their children or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to
idols. First and Second Maccabees arose from the Pharisaic tradition, from which Christianity later diverged. The accounts of
martyrs in these books influenced early Christianity's understanding of from the laws of their fathers and of God:
- And to defile the temple that was in Jerusalem, and to call it the temple of Jupiter Olympius: and that in Gazarim of Jupiter
Hospitalis, according as they were that inhabited the place.
- And very bad was this invasion of evils and grievous to all.
- For the temple was full of the riot and revellings of the Gentiles: and of men lying with lewd women. And women thrust
themselves of their accord into the holy places, and brought in things that were not lawful.
- The altar also was filled with unlawful things, which were forbidden by the laws.
- And neither were the sabbaths kept, nor the solemn days of the fathers observed, neither did any man plainly profess himself
to be a Jew.
- But they were led by bitter constraint on the king's birthday to the sacrifices: and when the feast of Bacchus was kept, they
were compelled to go about crowned with ivy in honour of Bacchus.
- And there went out a decree into the neighbouring cities of the Gentiles, by the suggestion of the Ptolemeans, that they also
should act in like manner against the Jews, to oblige them to sacrifice:
- And whosoever would not conform themselves to the ways of the Gentiles, should be put to death: then was misery to be
seen.
- For two women were accused to have circumcised their children: whom, when they had openly led about through the city with the
infants hanging at their breasts, they threw down headlong from the walls.
- And others that had met together in caves that were near, and were keeping the sabbath day privately, being discovered by
Philip, were burnt with fire, because they made a conscience to help themselves with their hands, by reason of the religious
observance of the day.
A historical account by Rabbi Ephraim ben Yaakov (1132 - AD. 1200) describes Crusaders'
massacres of Jews, including the massacre at Blois, where approximately forty Jews were killed
following an accusation of ritual murder:
- "As they were led forth, they were told, 'You can save your lives if you will leave your religion and accept ours.' The Jews
refused. They were beaten and tortured to make them accept the Christian religion, but still they refused. Rather, they
encouraged each other to remain steadfast and die for the sanctification of God's Name." [1]
During the Spanish Inquisition, many of those executed were Jews who refused to convert to Christianity. Specifically, they
were cryptic Jews, who had pretended to adopt Christianity in an attempt to avoid persecution.
Islam
-
- See also: Persecution of
Muslims
In Arabic, a martyr is termed "shaheed" (literally, "witness"). The concept of the
shaheed is discussed in the Hadith, the sayings of Muhammad; the term does not appear in the Qur'an in the technical sense, but
the later exegetical tradition has read it to mean martyr in the few passages that it does appear in. The first martyr in
Islam was the old woman Sumayyah bint
Khabbab[2], the first Muslim to die at the hands of the polytheists of Mecca (specifically, Abu
Jahl). A famous person widely regarded as a martyr - indeed, an archetypal martyr for the Shia - is Husayn bin Ali, who died at the hands of the forces of the
second Umayyad caliph Yazid I
at Karbala. The Shia commemorate this event each year at Aashurah.
Muslims who die in a legitimate jihad bis saif (struggle with the sword, or
Islamic holy war) are sometimes considered shahid. This usage became controversial in
the late 20th century (due to the Islamic strictures against suicide), when it was sometimes applied to suicide bombers by various
groups. There a huge controversy about the meaning of jihad in Islam, since Muhammad never claimed that suicide is equal to
jihad; Jihad is an act of fighting for the Dar al Islam, either to
defend it against an aggressor or to bring about its expansion. Where Muhammad explained, in hadith, that those who commit
suicide are forbidden to even smell heaven. Many contend that these murders are contrary to the spirit of Islam.
Bahá'í Faith
-
In the Bahá'í Faith, a martyr is one who sacrifices his or her life in the service of
humanity in the name of God.[2] However, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í
Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life, and instead explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to
service to humanity.[2]
`Abdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son and appointed interpreter, explained that the truest form
of martyrdom is a life-long sacrifice to serve humanity in the name of God.[2] While the Bahá'í Faith exalts the station of its martyrs,
martyrdom is not something that Bahá'ís are encouraged to pursue; instead one is urged to protect one's life.[3]
During the history of the Bahá'í Faith there are many who are considered martyrs. The
Bahá'í Faith grew out of a separate religion, Bábism, which Bahá'ís see as part of their own
history. In Bábism, martyrdom had the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life and was seen as a public declaration of
sincerity.[4] During the
1840s and 1850s the Báb claimed that he was the return of the Mahdi
and gained a strong following.[5] The
Persian clergy tried to stop the spread of the Bábí movement by denouncing the Bábís as apostates; these denouncements led to
public executions of the Bábís, troop engagements against the Bábís, and an extensive pogrom where thousands of Bábís were
killed.[5] In addition, the Báb himself was
publicly executed in 1850.[5] The Bábís
that were killed during these times are seen as martyrs by Bahá'ís, and the date of execution of the Báb, who Bahá'ís see as a
Manifestation of God equal to that of Bahá'u'lláh, is considered a holy day in the Bahá'í calendar, as the Martyrdom of the Báb.[4][6] Also among the Bábí executions was the poetess Táhirih, who
Bahá'ís consider the first woman suffrage martyr.[7]
After Bahá'u'lláh abstracted the meaning of martyrdom, gave it a new meaning, and abolished holy war, the Bábís who became Bahá'ís stopped seeking martyrdom as a public declaration of
sincerity.[2] However,
Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in predominantly Muslim countries, especially
in Iran where over 200 Bahá'ís were executed between 1978 and 1998.[8] Among these executions include two sets of nine people who were part of the
National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Iran, the national governing body of
the Bahá'ís, who were arrested and killed only for their religious beliefs.[9] The people who are killed just because they are Bahá'ís are also considered martyrs.[10][11]
Notes
- ^ See e.g. Alison A. Trites, The New Testament Concept of Witness,
ISBN 0-521-60934-8 and ISBN 9780521609340.
- ^ a b c d Winters, Jonah
(1997-09-19). "Conclusion", Dying for God: Martyrdom in the Shii and Babi Religions. M.A. Thesis. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
- ^ Taherzadeh, Adib (1987). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 4: Mazra'ih & Bahji 877-92.
Oxford, UK: George Ronald, pp. 57. ISBN 0853982708.
- ^ a b Winters, Jonah
(1997-09-19). "Meanings of Martyrdom in Babi Thought", Dying for God: Martyrdom in
the Shii and Babi Religions. M.A. Thesis. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
- ^ a b c Affolter, Friedrich W. (2005). "The Specter of Ideological Genocide: The Bahá'ís of Iran". War Crimes, Genocide and Crimes
Against Humanity 1 (1): 59– 89.
- ^ National Spiritual Assembly of the United States (2006-03-05).
The Badi Calendar.
bahai.us. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
- ^ Effendi, Shoghi (1944). God Passes By. Wilmette,
Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, pp. 75. ISBN 0877430209.
- ^ International Federation for Human Rights (2003-08-01). Discrimination against religious minorities in
Iran. fdih.org. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
- ^ Iran Human Rights
Documentation Center (2006-12). A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran. Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. Retrieved
on 2007-01-23.
- ^ Rivera, Ray (2006-01-30). Bahais Mourn Iranian Jailed for His Faith. Washington Post. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
- ^ A Dress for Mona. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
References
- Catholic Encyclopedia
"Martyrs"
- Foster, Claude R. jr.: Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle : a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany ; a sourcebook
on the German Church struggle; Westchester, Pennsylvania: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University, 1995; ISBN 1-887732-01-2
See also
-
External links
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