emergency vehicle lighting
Emergency vehicle lighting refers to any of several visual warning devices, which can also be known as light bars or beacons, fitted to a vehicle and used when the driver wishes to convey to other road users the urgency of their journey, or to provide additional warning of a hazard when stationary. They are often used along with sirens in order to maximize their effectiveness. In many jurisdictions, the use of these lights may afford the user specific legal powers, and may place requirements on other road users to behave differently, such as compelling them to pull to the side of the road.
Purpose
When a vehicle has its visual warnings active, it is primarily for one of three purposes:
- To signal to drivers, pedestrians and other road users that the purpose of the journey is urgent (such as attending an emergency), and by inference, that every driver should make their best attempt to clear the road, allowing the vehicle to pass safely. These beacons are most often forward facing.
- When stationary in order to warn approaching traffic (including other emergency vehicles) of a hazard, such as a road traffic collision. These beacons are most likely to be rear or side facing, although front facing beacons may still be of use here.
- To inform other road users of additional hazards around a vehicle, such as a recovery truck whilst towing another vehicle, or if the vehicle is about to perform an unusual manoeuvre, such as a sharp turn in the road, or pulling in to a station. This may involve lighting on any side of the vehicle, and may also use more advanced units such as matrix information signs.
The use of emergency vehicle lighting is generally restricted to only those times when responding to emergencies, when a specific hazard exists in the road or when undertaking pre-approved training in their use. In some areas, this may be a legal restriction.
Form and Fitting
There are four main places to which emergency lighting can be fitted on a vehicle, dependant on the requirements on the vehicle, which could include which agency is using it, and for what purposes. The main types are:
- Roof mounted
- Bodywork mounted
- Vehicle integral
- Internally mounted
Roof mounted
The mounting of lighting on the roof gives maximum visibility for other road users in the case of vehicles such as cars and small vans or trucks, and can offer 360 degree coverage. This type of mounting can be less effective on larger vehicles, where line of sight is obscured by the height. These can be seen in two discreet types:
Single beacon
Since their introduction in the 1940s, single beacons have become widely accepted as a means of attracting attention to one's vehicle. Although the use of a single beacon in law enforcement has dropped since the introduction of light bars, the single beacon is still used by some police departments because of their lower cost, lower air resistance figures (see below), and in some cases simply due to tradition. One agency that continues to employ a traditional single beacon on their patrol cars is the Michigan State Police. Single beacons may also be seen as secondary lights on a vehicle with a full light bar, either mounted on the vehicles top or inside the vehicle, facing out the windshield or rear window. Beacons are also commonly used on utility and construction vehicles when a full-sized lightbar is ill-suited or impossible to attach to the vehicle.
Single beacons are also frequently found on unmarked vehicles, due the speed with which why are able to be attached to the roof, often using magnets ("mag mount"), suction or both, to hold them on. These types of beacon are often given a limited top speed, past which the manufacturer will not guarantee their hold to the roof. They are often round or teardrop shaped, and are often referred to as "Kojak" lights after the popular 1970s TV series that used one.
Lightbar
In order to utilize two single beacons it became necessary to install a bar across the roof to establish a level platform, and then attach the beacons to this bar, often with a siren speaker and/or "lollipop" lights between the beacons. This was the origin of the term "light bar".
The very earliest light bars appeared in the 1960s and were generally custom-built by the agency using them. This was accomplished by fabricating a bar to attach to the vehicle's roof, and then attaching individual components (beacons, lollipops, speakers, oscillating lights, etc.) to the bar. The beacon manufacturers quickly caught on and began producing off-the-shelf complete "light bars".
The next progression from the individual component design was to integrate the elements of the lightbar into a single contiguous unit. The colored dome over the beacon was extended toward the center of the bar to accommodate fixed beam lights (in place of lollipops), or one or more mirrors to enhance the flash pattern of the beacon. An enclosure for the siren speaker bridged the gap between the beacon lenses and resulted in the first true contemporary lightbar design.
Some lightbar variations are specialized to meet certain desires of the agency utilizing them, such as those in a "V" shape design which presents additional flash-power to the side of the vehicle, and those designed to hug the roof of a vehicle to minimize air resistance and/or present a lower profile for "stealth" purposes. The modern trend of locating sirens and other audible warning devices at the front of emergency vehicle has also resulted in almost all lightbar models being offered in an "all-light" configuration, with continuous lighting options available across the entire width of the lightbar.
Today's modern lightbars combine various elements deemed worthwhile for the specific applications they are applied to. These elements may include: halogen/incandescent rotating lights with or without accompanying mirrors, strobe lights, LED panels, two-tiered (above/below) lights, fixed-beam "takedown" flashing lights, side-facing "alley" spotlights, directional traffic advisory arrows, siren speakers, and more. Several manufacturers have incorporated programmable flash patterns into their lightbars.
Bodywork mounted
Some types of light can be mounted on to the outside of the vehicle (usually a permanent install) and these can be used provide directional lighting in key areas, such as in front for clearing traffic, or to the rear for scene protection. They can also form part of the main lighting arrangement for subtly marked or unmarked vehicles. In this application, the operating service may choose to use lights with clear lenses so as to minimise the possibility of the lights being noticed when not on.
Common places to mount such beacons include on or in the grille of the vehicle and on the front of the rear view mirrors, where they can gain maximum visibility, or as additional lighting such as on the side of the bonnet which helps increase the warning for oncoming traffic when pulling out of junctions. These lights are often strobe or LED types, as they have the lowest profile for purposes of attachment.
Vehicle integral
It is possible to modify lighting already fitted to the vehicle in order to create emergency lighting. This usually involves flashing existing lights, such as the full beam headlights, or the brake lights and rear fog lights alternately. This is also known as wig-wag lighting.
Interior mounted
Lighting can be mounted in numerous locations inside the vehicle itself, and pointed out through window glass. This may be chosen for several reasons, including to maintain a discreet profile on unmarked vehicles, or as with bodywork mounted units, to provide extra lighting in certain directions, with the advantage of being at eye level for other motorists. They are often fitted with shields which direct the light through the window, but prevent reflections in to the cab.
These may be permanently mounted and wired into the vehicle's electrical system, or they may be temporarily mounted and plug into the vehicle's cigarette lighter.
The aerodynamic properties of light bars can be important for police applications, as fuel efficiency and drag are concerns in patrol and pursuit. Because of this, some police cars do not have roof mounted lightbars. These "slick-top" cars mount their emergency lights within the cruiser, generally around the visor area, dashboard, or rear deck. Some slick-top cars are fitted with lightbars that are built into the leading or trailing edge of the roof, covering the extreme top of the front and/or rear windshields. Slick-top police cars are also noteworthy in that their silhouette lacks the shape of a lightbar or beacon, resembling that of a civilian vehicle and making the car harder to identify as a police vehicle. Because of these visual advantages, these vehicles are often referred to as "stealth" vehicles as opposed to their "marked" counterparts.
A key disadvantage of relying solely on internal lighting is the number of lights required to achieve true 360 degree visibility, with most lights usually concentrated front and rear. This can limit the application of vehicles for instances such as scene protection.
Technical types
The technical type of lighting used can have a significant effect on the the look of the vehicle, and can also have a major effect on how it is perceived by the public. A study in the United Kingdom showed that strobe style lighting effects conveyed a greater sense of urgency to other road users, with the faster the flash the more urgent it was, potentially helping to speed the emergency vehicle through traffic.[1] The same study also looked at other effects, and concluded that factors such as flash pattern were important, with simultaneously flashing beacons attracting attention far quicker than alternately flashing versions, although this did increase discomfort glare.
Unsurprisingly, the study also found that attention was gained far quicker the higher the intensity of the light was, and the more beacons were present.
Rotating light
These revolving lights usually contain one or several incandescent bulbs around which a curved mirror is spun, creating a rotating beam of light, which appears to flash when viewed from a stationary position. The effect can be multiplied by using angled reflecting mirrors, meaning the effect from a stationary position is that of multiple flashing lights.
To protect the workings of the beacon, a plastic dome often covers the assembly. These domes usually come in solid colors, but in some cases the front and back halves of the dome are different colors. Other beacons use a clear dome with colored lamps or reflectors inside. Especially in the last case, these rotating beacons have been nicknamed "gumball machines".
Strobe lights
Strobe lights can put out 1.5 million candle power for roughly 250 microseconds, while lightbars using halogen bulbs can put out a constant 50,000 to 70,000 candle power.
Single beacons are now more often available as an omnidirectional strobe light with a translucent dome. Some smaller and low-cost models, however, are simply a flashing halogen bulb. LEDs are also used to light some omnidirectional beacons.
LED lighting
LED-based lighting is becoming very popular in the emergency services for several reasons. The light-emitting diodes are small, completely solid state, very power-efficient, and have no filaments to burn out.
Whether as lightbars or single beacons, LED-based lights typically use a clear, colorless dome because the light color is an intrinsic property of the diodes themselves. LED-based lightbars can be made very thin to limit wind resistance. On the other hand, LED warning lights can be made very flat and used in novel applications, for example to flip up under a sun visor.
LED lights are often used in a mode similar to conventional strobe lights, however they can be programmed with a wider variety of flash patterns because of their ability to be switched directly by electronics, as opposed to discharging a capacitor through a gas-filled tube. However, LED lights work just as easily in a steady mode, and some rotating beacons are now made with LEDs rather than bulbs.[2]
Information matrix signs
Some emergency vehicles use signs made up of a large number of light sources (usually LEDs), which can be programmed to display messages to other road users. This can be used to request other vehicles to pull over, indicate a special instruction, or just to display the name of the operating service (e.g. 'Police')
Effects
The purpose of a warning beacon is to attract the attention of other road users, specifically to look in a direction they may not have been looking in, drawing their attention to the vehicle displaying the warning. [1]
Hazards
There may be a number of hazards related to the use of emergency beacons, causing potential danger to other road users. These effects should be mitigated as far as possible during vehicle design, to reduce the likelihood of injury resulting.[1] These hazards include:
- Eleptogenic response - This is the induction of medical problems such epileptic fits, or less serious discomfort, headache and eyestrain by flashing lights - this latter being of particular effect on emergency workers. Epileptic fits can be triggered by flashing lights in the frequency range of 10-20Hz, with all colours showing a equal reaction.[3]
- Disability glare - This is where a bright light source in the person's field of view reduces their ability to see other objects. The effect may be exacerbated by windscreens, rain or glasses.[1] This may mean the driver of another vehicle is temporarily blinded, and may not see other hazards in the road, with additional potential to cause injury or death to themselves or others. The worst effects occur with amber beacons, strobe beacons and high intensity lights.[1]
- Discomfort glare and Distraction - This is less inherently dangerous than disability glare, but is related to any discomfort experienced by lights (including full beam headlights for instance). It may cause other road users to avert their eyes, making them less aware of road hazards.[1]
- Phototaxis - This is the so called 'moth-to-flame' effect, where the hypothesis runs that some drivers may be so distracted by the beacons that they are 'drawn' to them. In the United States, a recovery vehicle was successfully prosecuted for causing injury in this way, although no scientific evidence supports the theory.[1]
Colors
The color of the emergency lighting can be important in giving information to other road users as to the nature of the vehicle, and the urgency of its purpose. Most countries have different coloured lights used by core emergency services (such as police and fire) to those used by civil services such as motor vehicle breakdown recovery.
However, the authorised or common colors vary widely between jurisdictions, and this can cause confusion for travellers or immigrants who are used to different colour schemes being used.
The most common colours for the core emergency services to use are blue, red or a combination of the two. Research is mixed on the effectiveness of different colors of lights. Research in the United States indicated that twice the amount of blue light energy is needed in daylight to be perceived as bright as red. At night, the situation is reversed.[4] However, research in the United Kingdom suggests that when intensity is held constant, red has the quickest warning beacon detection time at night for driver, and green the quickest detection time during the day, whilst blue is most easily seen by pedestrians. Blue gives the lowest amount of disability glare, although both red and blue had low amounts of discomfort glare. Amber was found to be the least effective colour for detection both in the day and at night.[1] However, the same study goes on to test the colours in 'real world' conditions, where situation is almost reversed, with amber becoming the most effective colour of beacon (due to the lower filtering level of amber shades), and green becoming the least effective colour (red and blue both came in the middle)
Some proponents of blue lights argues that blue is specific to emergency vehicles only, while red is very common in traffic, in traffic lights, brake lights etc., which could lead to potential confusion for the motorist.
Below is a summary table of common emergency vehicle lighting colours.
| Country | Police | Fire | Ambulance | Command | Utility | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australia | Red and Blue | Red and blue | Red and blue | Green | Amber | |
| Austria | Blue | Blue | Blue | Amber | ||
| Canada | Red or Red and blue | Red (Green for voluntary firefighters) | Red (Green for voluntary paramedics) | Amber (Blue on snowplows in some provinces) | ||
| Denmark | Blue | Blue | Blue | Amber | ||
| Finland | Blue and some red | Blue | Blue | Green | Amber | |
| Germany | Blue | Blue | Blue | |||
| Greece | Blue and some Red | Red | Blue | Amber | Amber | |
| Hong Kong | Red and blue | Red and blue | Red | Amber | ||
| Japan | Red | |||||
| New Zealand | Blue | Red | Red | Amber. Green for medical staff | ||
| Poland | Blue + some red | Blue | Blue | Amber | ||
| United Kingdom | Blue | Blue | Blue (green courtesy light for doctors on call) | Blue, red or green (depending on service) checkered with white | Amber | |
| United States | Red and/or blue | Red. However, colors vary widely by state for volunteer personnel. | Red and white | Green | Amber | |
| Sweden | Blue & white | Blue & white | Blue & white | Amber |
Australia
In Australia, colors are generally regulated at the state level, but there are some commonalities:
- Red signifies a risk-to-life situation,[5] and is used by fire engines, ambulances, Mines Rescue, Red Cross blood/organ transport, and State Emergency Service vehicles in most states. Until recently some states used only red on fire engines and ambulances.
- Amber lights are used by tow trucks and most other utility vehicles.
- Green lights are used to denote a stationary command vehicle.
- Blue lights are reserved for emergency vehicles in general, such as police, fire, ambulance, and traffic commanders.
- Magenta lights are used by council rangers[6] ( except in Western Australia where they use amber [7] ) and state trucking inspectors.
- White is used on most newer emergency vehicles, both as an extra color on lightbars and in the form of 'wig-wag' headlights.
Canada
Generally, red is used for emergency vehicles, amber for construction and utility vehicles, green for volunteer firefighters in some provinces, and blue (along with red) for police, as well as snow removal vehicles in some provinces.
Police now use both red and blue in all provinces, now including Ontario[8], where the colour blue had been reserved for snowplows until recently.
Some provinces restrict municipal peace officers (the exact title varies by province) to a different colour; for instance red-only in Quebec, and amber in British Columbia and Ontario. However Ontario does permit certain types of provincial enforcement officers, such as Ministry of Transportation, red lights. It is a "grey issue" whether University Constables are legally permitted to use red lights on their patrol vehicles, however most do.
In some provinces, green may indicate a volunteer firefighter's or medical responder's private vehicle.[9][10] In addition to the use of optional green lights, volunteer firefighters often receive special licence plate size markings (red letters on a yellow background) to be displayed in place of a front licence plate, or in the window of said vehicle.
Utility vehicles generally use amber. Ontario and Newfoundland use blue lights for snowplows, while Alberta uses amber and red for snowplows[11], with a public awareness campaign advising motorists that flashing amber and red means snowplow ahead. Alberta allows red lights on certain classes of utility vehicles, such as natural gas utilities which may need to disconnect a gas line in an emergency.[10]
Yellow beacons can also be used on funeral vehicles. Some funeral vehicles use a purple light. Some hearses in Ontario have alternating wig-wag headlights, though technically illegal. Often as a courtesy motorists yield to funeral processions, however they are not required to by law.
Europe
In Continental Europe, emergency vehicles overwhelmingly use blue lights. However, it is a darker specification blue than used in other parts of the world. Swedish ambulances and fire engines often use white along with the dark "euro" blue to improve visibility during daylight hours.
German police lightbars often have "POLIZEI" written in white over the lens, and often incorporate an LED text display that can read, in mirrored writing if towards the front, "BITTE FOLGEN" ( literally, "please follow" ), to signal drivers to pull over.
Red lights are not generally used except in some countries where red has a specific meaning. Police in Finland and Sweden use a forward-facing red light to indicate that a driver must pull over and stop. Sweden also uses red on fire vehicles to designate the command post; in other countries a single green beacon sometimes designates the command post. In Poland, red is used on some police and military vehicles to show that it leads a convoy.
Amber lights generally designate nonemergency vehicles such as tow trucks or construction equipment.
New Zealand
In
- Blue: The New Zealand Police are the only agency authorised to have blue lighting fitted to a vehicle, by virtue of Police being also defined in law as an Enforcement Officer. Police Vehicles are usually equipped with both red and blue lights in the form of a lightbar, dash lights and grille lights.
- Red: Any other vehicle defined as an Emergency Vehicle (being operated by the Police, a recognised Ambulance service or the New Zealand Fire Service) may display red beacons, with the option of white flashing lights facing forward only. This allows for a wig-wag arrangement using the OEM Headlights and/or additional white lights in a lightbar or on the dashboard.
- Amber: Amber beacons or lightbars may be operated by registered vehicle recovery agencies, traffic management agencies or in any circumstance where warning of lawful activity in the vicinity of the vehicle is required for safety reasons. (This may include rubbish trucks which frequently stop, for example). Amber must also be fitted to Oversize vehicles and their pilot vehicles.
- Purple: Purple and amber lights must be fitted to pilot vehicles.
- Green: A vehicle operated by a registered medical practitioner (Doctor, Nurse or Midwife) may be fitted with a single green beacon.
Volunteers in general are afforded no special privileges and cannot use flashing lights or sirens in order to navigate traffic. However, Volunteer Fire Police members who respond to calls in their own private vehicles may be authorised by their unit or brigade to display a red beacon, for reasons of safety and identification. These lights may only be fitted and operational within the confines of an emergency scene (generally when stationary) - never when mobile in traffic.
Hong Kong
- Red & Blue: Hong Kong Police Force & Auxiliary Medical Services emergency responding vehicles
- Blue only: Hong Kong Customs and Excise Department, Fire Services Department ambulances & Hong Kong St. John Ambulance ambulances
- Red only: Fire Services Department fire trucks
- Amber only : All vehicles in the air-side of the airport must use amber flashing light for pilots' visibility & Civil Aid Service vehicles
Japan
- Red is the only color used on police vehicles (with the exception of wig-wags). Japanese police use light bars on a raised platform to make them more visible over a congested street.
United Kingdom
Only emergency vehicles, including police cars, ambulances, fire engines, HM Coastguard vehicles, HM Revenue and Customs vehicles investigating serious crimes and RNLI vehicles launching lifeboats,[13] may use blue flashing lights and flashing headlights, and only then when proceeding to or at the scene of an emergency.[14] Vehicles using blue lights are exempt from many motoring regulations, such as being able to treat a red traffic light as a give way sign, driving on the wrong side of the road or a motorway hard shoulder and ignoring the speed limit. They may not, however, ignore no entry signs, drive the wrong way down a one-way street or cross a solid white line in the middle of the road ( other than the same exceptions granted everyone else e.g. to pass a stationary vehicle), although some regulations may have to be disobeyed at the professional judgement of the driver.[14] Though no qualification other than a driving license is legally required to use them, most organisations will insist that their drivers are trained in high-speed driving techniques. The common combination of blue flashing lights with two-tone sirens has led to 'blues and twos' becoming a nickname for the emergency services as a whole, as well as the title of a fly-on-the-wall documentary series following them.
Doctors on emergency calls are allowed a green courtesy light.[14] Flashing red lights are not generally allowed on moving vehicles, though some police forces have rear-facing flashing red lights on traffic police cars, which are used to signify that the vehicle is stationary.
Chequered lights denote command and control vehicles - these are red and white for fire (one of the few situations where a forward-facing red light may be shown), blue and white for police and green and white for ambulance, and are often fitted in the middle of the light bar.[14]
The only form of lighting that may be used by the general public is amber lights, which generally signify slow-moving vehicles, such as utility vehicles, and give no priority, existing purely to advertise the vehicle's presence. They are also mandatory for some vehicles, such as vehicles with a top speed of twenty-five mph or less[14] (e.g. tractors). Volunteer personnel are generally not allowed lights on their personal vehicles.
It should also be noted that UK legislation considers all lights, reflectors and reflective material to be lights, and any colour of light except blue is allowed on any vehicle as long as it is disconnected or covered while on the public highway.[14] Similarly, no distinction is made between lights mounted on light bars and those mounted anywhere else on the vehicle (e.g. headlights, indicators, brake lights) - all are covered by the same regulations.
United States
In the United States, colors are generally regulated at the state level, but there are some commonalities.
- Red almost always denotes an emergency vehicle if the lights are facing forward.
- Amber or Yellow lights are often used by vehicles such as construction vehicles, tow trucks, funeral vehicles or other vehicles that may be stopped or moving slower than the flow of traffic. Amber is usually the most permissively regulated color.
- White is often used as an optional color on lightbars, though it may be restricted to emergency vehicles in some states. It is rarely used as the only color on a lightbar, though Rhode Island, Florida, Wisconsin and Kentucky require flashing white beacons on school buses. Certain railroad-related machines, like fueling tankers or switching engines, may also use a flashing white light.
- Green on a fire chief's car or a mobile command post denotes the command vehicle on scene; this usage derives from the use of green flags in the Incident Command System. Green can also denote a volunteer firefighter or EMT's vehicle in some states. In some states, green is used by private security guards, although amber is also used.
- Blue is reserved for law enforcement in some states, while in others it is used by volunteer firefighters and EMTs. In New Mexico, tow trucks have blue lights. Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Minnesota, and Nebraska also use blue lights on snowplows.[15][16][17]
- Purple is permitted in some states to denote a funeral vehicle.[18][19][20][21]
By service
Police
In the
Some police cars have an amber traffic-control stick (also known as an arrow stick, arrow bar, Arrow Stik™, or SignalMaster™) to direct traffic left or right or around both sides of the vehicle; these usually have 6 or 8 rear-facing lights that flash in sequence.
Fire and EMS
In the USA, the National Fire Protection Association publishes the NFPA-1901 standards for fire vehicles,[22] which specifies the degree of lighting on various parts of the vehicles, with some flexibility as to color. There is also a GSA procurement specification for ambulances known as KKK-A-1822,[23] which many local authorities follow. Generally, fire vehicles use red and ambulances use red and white. Both often show an amber light facing the rear.
Volunteer Personnel
Almost all states in the US allow volunteer fire and EMS personnel to place emergency warning lights in their personal vehicles for use when responding to emergencies. The laws vary greatly by state. For instance, Virginia state law allows emergency personnel to equip one private vehicle "with no more than two flashing or steady-burning red or red and white combination warning lights".[24]
The degree of lighting is mandated by law and also by local custom in most areas, and can vary from a single rotating light on the dashboard or roof, to a setup much like modern police cruisers. Some states also allow volunteer use of sirens and air horns to clear the right of way.
In some states, volunteers are allowed to use the normal red lights, while in other states volunteers must use some other color, usually blue or green. In the latter case, the lights are used as a courtesy to "request" the right of way and generally do not mandate pulling over. Some states, such as New Jersey, limit volunteer use of red lights to chiefs and captains of squads.
Separate colors may be used for fire versus EMS volunteers. In
Utility Vehicles
Yellow lights have become popular in the civilian arena as a way of drawing attention to a vehicle involved in non-emergency work. Most phone and cable companies, towing services, and certain types of construction equipment mount some type of lightbar; additionally, several local and state vehicles involved in maintenance work for roads, gas and water pipes, electric services, and so forth utilize yellow lights for a higher degree of visibility. In Detroit, Michigan, Angel's Night volunteers will patrol neighborhoods with yellow lights to help deter vandalism during Devil's Night and Halloween. Typically these lights are the single beacon kind, although lightbars have been used for vehicles of this type, especially on wreckers/tow trucks.
In places that do not enforce specific rules about green or white lights, they are often used by entities like private security companies which may be ineligible to use blue or red lights but wish to distinguish themselves from utility vehicles.
Optional colors
Often while certain colors are customarily used by different services, there are other colors that are optionally used, such as amber and white. Sometimes this is done to satisfy particular regulations; for example, California requires a steady red light facing forward on every emergency vehicle.[25][26][27]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h
- ^ e.g. http://www.aps-supply.com/product_details.php?itemid=540
- ^ Jeavons, PM; Harding, GF. Photosensitive Epilepsy. Heinemann, London.
- ^ Wells, Jr., Lt. James D. (March 2004). "Florida Highway Patrol: Emergency Lighting Research & Prototype Evaluation". International Association of Chiefs of Police: pp. 5, 8.
- ^ New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority: Flashing lights and sirens
- ^ A council ranger is a type of peace officer found in Australia who enforces municipal ordinances, and has limited police powers.
- ^ Western Australia DPI: Warning Lamps
- ^ McGuinty Government Continues To Keep Families Safe On Ontario's Roads
- ^ Ontario Regulation 484/07: Lamps — use of flashing red or green lights
- ^ a b [1] Alberta Highway Traffic Regulation 155/97]
- ^ [2], Alberta Infrastructure and Transportation - Snowplows
- ^ NZ Land Transport Safety Authority Vehicle Lighting Rule 2004
- ^ Many lifeboats are also fitted with blue lights themselves, but these are mainly for visibility and to indicate official status, and have little legal meaning on the high seas.
- ^ a b c d e f UK Emergency Vehicles - Blue Light Use (& other colours)
- ^ Alaska Code §11.13.04.100: Flashing blue lights on vehicles
- ^ Stidger, Ruth W. "Safer Winter Maintenance". Better Roads Magazine (October 2003). James Informational Media, Des Plaines.
- ^ Nebraska Code § 60-6,230: Lights; rotating or flashing; colored lights; when permitted.
- ^ Arkansas Motor Vehicle and Traffic Laws § 27-36-306: Other nonemergency vehicles - Funeral processions
- ^ Florida Statute 316.1974: Funeral procession right-of-way and liability.
- ^ Code of Virginia §46.2-1025: Flashing amber, purple, or green warning lights.
- ^ West Virginia Code §17C-15-19. Additional lighting equipment.
- ^ http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=1901
- ^ http://apps.fss.gsa.gov/vehiclestandards/index.cfm
- ^ Virginia Personal Emergency Vehicle Lights
- ^ CA Vehicle Code §25252: Warning Lamps on Authorized Emergency Vehicles
- ^ Emergency vehicles in California generally have a flashing amber light to the rear as well.
- ^ Faugh, Robert J. Emergency Warning Lights & Parking Procedures. Firehouse.com.
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