(′fən′jī)

(mycology) Nucleated, usually filamentous, sporebearing organisms devoid of chlorophyll.

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Nucleated, usually filamentous, sporebearing organisms devoid of chlorophyll; typically reproducing both sexually and asexually; living as parasites in plants, animals, or other fungi, or as saprobes on plant or animal remains, in aquatic, marine, terrestrial, or subaerial habitats. Yeasts, mildews, rusts, mushrooms, and truffles are examples of fungi.

Some fungal classifications were constructed to facilitate identification, whereas others emphasize phylogeny. The more widely used classifications reflect a series of compromises between identification and phylogeny, and tend to conserve the vocabulary and nomenclature familiar to broad groups of users. The following is a conventional classification, in which all organisms are treated as members of the kingdom Fungi:

Division: Eumycota

     Subdivision: Mastigomycotina

          Class: Chytridiomycetes

                    Hyphochytriomycetes

                    Oomycetes

     Subdivision: Zygomycotina

          Class: Zygomycetes

                    Trichomycetes

     Subdivision: Ascomycotina

          Class: Hemiascomycetes

                    Plectomycetes

                    Pyrenomycetes

                    Discomycetes

                    Loculoascomycetes

     Subdivision: Basidiomycotina

          Class: Hymenomycetes

                    Gasteromycetes

                    Urediniomycetes

                    Ustilaginomycetes

     Subdivision: Deuteromycotina

          Class: Blastomycetes

                    Hyphomycetes

                    Coelomycetes

                    Agonomycetes

Division: Myxomycota

Organisms in the kingdom Fungi are mostly haploid, use chitin as a structural cell-wall polysaccharide, and synthesize lysine by the alpha amino adipic acid pathway; and their body is made of branching filaments (hyphae). The fungi arose about 1 billion years ago along with plants (including green algae), animals plus choanoflagellates, red algae, and stramenopiles. Ribosomal comparison indicates that the closest relatives to the fungi are the animals plus choanoflagellates. See also Choanoflagellida.

Ascomycetes are the most numerous fungi (75% of all described species), and include lichen-forming symbionts. The group has traditionally been divided into unicellular yeasts and allies with naked asci, and hyphal forms with protected asci. However, ribosomal gene sequences indicate that some traditional yeasts and allied forms diverged early (early ascomycetes), at about the time ascomycetes were diverging from basidiomycetes. Hyphal ascomycetes protect their asci with a variety of fruiting bodies; the earliest fruiting bodies may have been open cups (Discomycetes), while in more recent groups they are flask shaped (Pyrenomycetes and Loculoascomycetes) or are completely closed (Plectomycetes). Ascomycetes lacking sexual structures have been classified in the Fungi Imperfecti, but molecular comparisons now allow their integration with the ascomycetes. See also Ascomycota; Deuteromycotina; Discomycetes; Loculoascomycetes; Plectomycetes; Plectomycetes.

The mycelium, generally the vegetative body of fungi, is extremely variable. Unicellular forms, thought to be primitive or derived, grade into restricted mycelial forms; in most species, however, the mycelium is extensive and capable of indefinite growth. Some are typically perennial though most are ephemeral. The mycelium may be nonseptate, that is, coenocytic, with myriad scattered nuclei lying in a common cytoplasm, or septate, with each cell containing one to a very few nuclei or an indefinite number of nuclei. Septa may be either perforate or solid. Cell walls are composed largely of chitinlike materials except in one group of aquatic forms that have cellulose walls. Most mycelia are white, but a wide variety of pigments can be synthesized by specific forms and may be secreted into the medium or deposited in cell walls and protoplasm. Mycelial consistency varies from loose, soft wefts of hyphae to compact, hardened masses that resemble leather. Each cell is usually able to regenerate the entire mycelium, and vegetative propagation commonly results from mechanical fragmentation of the mycelium.

Asexual reproduction, propagation by specialized elements that originate without sexual fusion, occurs in most species and is extremely diverse. The most common and important means of asexual reproduction are unicellular or multicellular spores of various types that swim, fall, blow, or are forcibly discharged from the parent mycelium.

Sexual reproduction occurs in a majority of species of all classes. Juxtaposition and fusion of compatible sexual cells are achieved by four distinct sexual mechanisms, involving various combinations of differentiated sexual cells (gametes), undifferentiated sexual cells (gametangia), and undifferentiated vegetative cells.

Fungi obtain organic substances (food) from their environment which have been produced through the (photosynthetic) activities of green plants, since fungi do not contain chlorophyll and are unable to manufacture their own food. Fungi are able to digest food externally by releasing enzymes into their environment. These smaller molecules can be absorbed into the fungal body and transported to various locations where they can be used for energy or converted into different chemicals to make new cells or to serve other purposes. Some of the by-products of fungal metabolism may be useful to humans. Most fungi use nonliving plant material for food, but a few use nonliving animal material and therefore are called saprophytic organisms. In nature the decomposition of dead plant material is an important function of fungi, as the process releases nutrients back into the surrounding ecosystem where they can be reused by other organisms, including humans. See also Biodegradation; Fungal ecology.

A few fungi have the physiological capability to grow on living plants and may cause diseases such as wheat rust or corn smut on these economically important plants. Some fungi can grow on grains and may produce substances known as aflatoxins which can be detrimental to animals or humans. A few species of fungi have the ability to grow and acquire their food from skin or hair on living animals such as cats, horses, and humans. The disease known as ringworm may result. It is not caused by a worm but by an expanding circular growth of a fungus which has the physiological capability to use the components of skin or hair as the food source. The most frequently encountered fungal disease in humans is candidiasis, which is caused by one of the few fungi that is normally found associated with humans (Candida albicans). See also Aflatoxin; Medical mycology; Plant pathology; Yeast infection.

A number of fungal species are able to enter plant roots and develop an association that may be beneficial to the plant under natural field conditions. This association of a higher plant root and a fungus that does not produce a disease is called a mycorrhiza. This fungal association with the plant root may permit the plant to live under soil conditions where it may not otherwise survive because of an excess of acid in the soil or a lack or excess of certain nutrients. See also Mycorrhizae.

Certain species of fungi have been used by humans since early times in the preparation of foods such as leavened bread, cheeses, and beverages. Additional by-products of fungal physiology are used in industrial applications such as antibiotics, solvents, and pharmaceuticals. See also Fungal biotechnology; Industrial microbiology; Yeast.

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Subdivision of Thallophyta, plants without differentiation into root, stem, and leaf; they cannot photosynthesize, and all are parasites or saprophytes. Microfungi are moulds, as opposed to larger fungi, which are mushrooms and toadstools. Yeasts are sometimes classed with fungi.

Species of moulds such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc., are important causes of food spoilage in the presence of oxygen and relatively high humidity. Those that produce toxins (mycotoxins) are especially problematical. On the other hand species of Penicillium such as P. cambertii and P. roquefortii are desirable and essential in the ripening of certain cheeses.

A number of larger fungi (mushrooms) are cultivated, and other wild species are harvested for their delicate flavour. The mycelium of smaller fungi (including Graphium, Fusarium, and Rhizopus species) are grown commercially on waste carbohydrate as a rich source of protein for food manufacture. See mycoprotein.

Important in soil science, fungi are a group of simple parasitic plants. Fungi are lacking in chlorophyll and therefore cannot photosynthesize. They attack a wide range of organic residues, such as the woody tissue of plants, and are a major element of the soil-forming processes.

Fungi—sing. fungus; from the Greek sphongis (sponge)—are nonphotosynthetic and thus must absorb nutrients from organic matter formed by other organisms. The great majority of fungi obtain their food from dead organic matter and hence are known as saprophytes; a relatively small percentage derive their food from other living organisms and are known as parasites. Fungi may be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (mushrooms) and their cell walls usually contain chitin or cellulose and bglucan. They may produce sexually or asexually by means of spores that are roughly comparable with the seeds of higher plants.

The fungal kingdom offers enormous biodiversity with over seventy thousand known species and an estimated 1.5 million species. According to molecular evidence (16S-like ribosome RNA sequences), the fungi may have originated from protozoan ancestors before the kingdoms Animalia and Plantae split; there is strong evidence that Fungi are closer to Animalia than Plantae (Hawksworth et al.). Fungi are associated with some of the earliest remains of land plants. Some scientists believe that lichens (a stable self-supporting association of a fungus and an alga) might be transmigrants, the earliest colonizers of land.

Fungi have contributed to the shaping of humankind's welfare since the beginning of civilization. Fungi are recognized as both beneficial and harmful in their relationship to humans although this role is predominantly beneficial. They are responsible for a major portion of food deterioration in developing countries; however, the preservative effects of fermentation of foods and beverages with fungi are well-known benefits, including organic acids, alcohol, antibiotics, pigments, vitamins, growth regulators, immunomodulating agents, and enzymes. Finally, various types of edible mushrooms are consumed as an important part of human diets in many countries.

Fungi and Food Processing

Fungi used in food processing have been an integral part of the human diet since the beginning of civilization. In such foods, fungi are the agents responsible for imparting special flavors, textures, odors, or consistencies to food products. Fungi such as Aspergillus spp., Rhizopus spp., Penicillium spp., Neurospora spp., Cladosporium spp., and Mucor spp., as well as yeasts and many others have long been used to process a number of food products from soybeans to peanuts, rice, gram, maize, cassava, taro, and cacao beans.

Fungal enzymes. Food formulation using enzymes derived from fungi has undergone a rebirth in recent years. Enzyme suppliers have improved their ability to supply single-activity enzymes that do not have undesirable side activities (see Table 1 for a list of commercial fungal enzymes and their uses). Enzyme products have found increasing application for improving product clarity and yield and in replacing costly physical processes such as heating.

Cheese manufacture. Two general types of cheese are made with fungi as the ripening agents. Roquefort cheese is an example of cheese that is ripened primarily by growth of fungi (Penicillium roquefortii) throughout the cheese mass. Brie cheese is an example of one type of soft cheese that is ripened by the growth of fungi (Penicillium camemberti) on the outside of the cheese mass. In both types of cheeses, the fungi grow and release protein and fat-degrading enzymes that soften and ripen the cheese. Roquefort cheese requires about two months to ripen while Brie cheese requires only about one month to ripen.

Baker's yeast. Leavening, a process whereby batter or dough is caused to rise via the production of gas, especially carbon dioxide, was first discovered in Egypt. Today, most of the bread, cakes, cookies, and the like consumed by the public are prepared from leavened batter or dough. Most cakes and cookies are leavened chemically (by using baking powder) while most bread is leavened by yeasts (such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Yeasts develop and reproduce by producing buds on mother cells that subsequently enlarge and produce more buds. During growth, carbohydrates in the dough are metabolized to carbon dioxide that is trapped in the dough in the form of bubbles. During the leavening process, alcohol may accumulate in the dough to as high as 0.5 percent. The alcohol is driven off during baking and helps give the bread a pleasant aroma.

Table 1

List, source, and uses of enzymes derived from fungi for food manufacture
Enzyme	Source	Use
α -Amylase, amyloglucosidase	Aspergillus niger A. oryzae Rhizopus spp.	Hydrolysis of starch in production of beer, bread; manufacture of high-fructose syrups
α-Galactosidase	Mortierella vinacea	Hydrolysis of raffinose to sucrose and galactose during sugar refining
Catalase	Aspergillus niger Penicillium vitale	Remove excess hydrogen peroxide formed during cake baking or that may be added during pasteurization of milk and cheese
Cellulase	Aspergillus niger Trichoderma viride	Improve palatability of low-quality vegetables, accelerate drying of vegetables, alter texture of foods, increase flavor of commercial mushrooms
Hemicellulase	Aspergillus niger Trichoderma viride	Manufacture of instant coffee
Invertase	Yeasts Aspergillus spp.	Increases sweetness in confections; yields soft center in chocolate-covered candies
Lactase	Aspergillus niger A. oryzae	Hydrolysis of lactose in milk products, enabling their use by lactose-intolerant individuals; production of syrups for use as sweetening agents
Lipase	Candida spp. Aspergillus spp. Mucor spp. Rhizopus spp.	Used for flavor development in cheese, chocolate crumb, apple wine, and cooking fats; improved whipping properties of egg whites; fish processing
Naringinase	Aspergillus niger	Reduce bitter flavonone glycoside derivative found in some citrus products
Nuclease	Penicillium spp.	Flavor enhancers
Pectic Enzymes	Aspergillus niger Penicillium notatum Botrytis cinerea	Remove turbidity from fresh fruit juices; removal of pectins before concentrating juice; clarifying agent in wine
Protease	Aspergillus spp. Mucor pusillus	Meat tenderizer; remove bitter flavors, replace rennin in cheese manufacture, chill-proofing of beer; reduce elasticity of glutin proteins in bread
Rennet	Mucor spp.	Milk coagulation in cheese manufacture
Tannase	Aspergillus niger	Treat insoluable material that forms during manufacture of instant tea
SOURCE: Adapted from: Beuchat (1987) and Moore-Landecker (1995)

Edible Mushrooms

Mushrooms have a long history of human consumption. Traces of puffball fungi have been found in Stone Age settlements. Over 4,500 years ago in ancient Egypt only pharaohs were permitted to eat mushrooms, which they believed were "sons of the gods" sent down to earth on lightning bolts announced by claps of thunder. The legend that mushrooms may have originated from thunder and lightning also existed among people of other ethnic groups. In Roman folklore, some fungi were believed to spring from the ground in places struck by a thunderbolt. In the Hindu tradition, there was a god named Soma that manifested himself to the priests in the form of hallucinogenic fluids. Some scientists believe that Soma was the fly mushroom, Amanita muscaria. A similar legend may have existed among the inhabitants of the highlands of Guatemala and Mexico, where even today the people refer to A. muscaria by a common name meaning thunderbolt (Lowy).

Cultivated species. The cultivation of edible mushrooms worldwide reached 6.16 million metric tons in 1997, up from 1.26 million tons in 1981 (Table 2; Chang). This represents a 12 percent annual increase. Six mushroom genera accounted for 87 percent of the total mushroom supply (Table 2). These were Agaricus (31.8%), Lentinula (25.4%), Pleurotus (14.2%), Auricularia (7.9%), Flammulina (4.6%), and Volvariella (3%). China produced 3.92 million tons of mushrooms in 1997, or 63.6 percent of the total world output. The major mushroom of commerce in China is L. edodes, which accounts for 35 percent of the total output for that country. China currently produces 88 percent of the total world production of L. edodes.

Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom). The cultivation of the button mushroom originated in the Paris region in France. Melon growers in this region discovered how mushrooms could be grown and started cultivating them in 1650. By the mid 1700s it was discovered that A. bisporus could grow without light, and that very favorable conditions for growing mushrooms prevailed in subterranean tunnels and caves. As a result of this discovery, successful culture was undertaken inside the numerous caves that were excavated for building stones and for gypsum. The caves presented, from a climatic point of view, several advantages over the previous growing conditions in open air. Factors such as temperature and relative humidity were much more constant in caves compared with aboveground conditions.

Table 2

World production of cultivated edible mushrooms in 1981, 1990, and 1997
	1981		1990		1997
Species	Fresh Wt(x 1,000 t)	%	Fresh Wt(x 1,000 t)	%	Fresh Wt(x 1,000 t)	%
Agaricus bisporus	900.0	71.6	1,424.0	37.8	1,955.9	31.8
Lentinula edodes	180.0	14.3	393.0	10.4	1,564.4	25.4
Pleurotus spp.	35.0	2.8	900.0	23.9	875.6	14.2
Auricularia spp.	10.0	0.8	400.0	10.6	485.3	7.9
Volvariella volvacea	54.0	4.3	207.0	5.5	180.8	3.0
Flammulina velutipes	60.0	4.8	143.0	3.8	284.7	3.0
Tremella spp.	-	-	105.0	2.8	130.5	2.1
Hypsizygus spp.	-	-	22.6	0.6	74.2	1.2
Pholiota spp.	17.0	1.3	22.0	0.6	55.5	0.9
Grifola frondosa	-	-	7.0	0.2	33.1	0.5
Others	1.2	0.1	139.4	3.7	518.4	8.4
Total	1,257.2	100.0	3,763.0	100.0	6,158.4	100.0
SOURCE: Chang, 1999

From France, mushroom cultivation spread to other parts of the world. The business grew and soon spread to England and other countries. By 1825, the first mushroom crops were being produced in caves in Holland. In 1865, mushroom culture entered the United States via England and the first mushrooms were grown on a small scale on Long Island, New York; by 1870 the industry had begun to develop.

The button mushroom is produced commercially on a selective substrate prepared by composting mixtures of wheat straw, hay, corncobs, horse manure, or combinations thereof. The finished compost should have a nitrogen (N) content of 2–2.5 percent, and to reach such a level, nitrogen-rich supplements must be added. Inorganic nitrogen supplements can be added but only to provide part of the necessary amount. Organic sources of nitrogren include oilseed meal, brewers' grain, malt sprouts, and poultry manure.

Once the compost has been prepared, it is seeded with mushroom spawn that is prepared from a mother culture maintained by a spawn laboratory. Spawn is prepared by inoculating a pure culture of the mushroom onto steam-sterilized grain, usually rye or millet. Approximately one liter (500 g) of spawn is used to seed 0.5 m² of production surface that is contained in trays or beds inside environment-controlled production houses. Spawn run (vegetative growth of the mycelium) lasts ten to fourteen days, then a layer of neutralized peat moss (casing) is placed on top of the colonized compost to stimulate production of mushrooms. Approximately ten to fourteen days after casing, mushrooms are ready for harvest.

Lentinula edodes (shiitake). Production of shiitake worldwide increased more than sevenfold in the fourteen-year period from 1983 (207,000 t) to 1997 (1,573,000 t; Chang). Most of this increase occurred in China, where more than ten million part-and full-time farmers cultivate shiitake. Shiitake is widely consumed in China, yet one-third of production is exported. In 1997, China produced approximately 88 percent of the total world output (Chang). In the United States, production of shiitake is a relatively new enterprise, having begun only in the late 1970s. In 1990, the United States produced 1,123 tons of shiitake and by 1999 production reached 3,941 tons, a 3.5-fold increase (USDA). This increase in production was due, in part, to increased production efficiency and to increasing consumer demand. Farmers have learned to provide the specialized management this crop requires, thereby reducing production costs. The amount of controlled-environment production surface devoted to growing shiitake on synthetic logs has increased 2.9 fold from 1990 to 1999 (74,200 m² to 212,400 m², respectively).

Sawdust is the most popular basal ingredient used in synthetic formulations of substrate for producing shiitake in the United States, but other basal ingredients may include straw, corncobs, or both. Starch-based supplements (20–60 percent dry weight) such as wheat bran, rice bran, millet, rye, and maize may be added to the mix. These supplements serve as nutrients to provide a more optimal growth medium (Royse).

Pleurotus spp. (oyster mushroom). Oyster mushroom production increased at a rapid rate worldwide during the 1980s and then decreased slightly during the 1990s (Table 2). From 1986 to 1997, oyster mushroom production increased from 169,000 tons to 917,000 tons (a 5.4-fold increase). China was responsible for most of the production increase. In the United States, production of oyster mushrooms was 1,647 tons in 2001, up 2 percent from the previous year (USDA).

In the United States, the primary ingredients used for Pleurotus spp. production are chopped wheat straw or cottonseed hulls or mixtures thereof. After completion of pasteurization (140°F [60°C] for one to two hours) the substrate is cooled and spawned with the desired strain. There are several species of oyster mushrooms cultivated, with various colors of fruiting body. In Japan, bottle production of oyster mushrooms is most common. Substrate is filled into bottles, sterilized, and inoculated with Pleurotus spawn. Upon completion of the spawn run, bottle lids are removed and mushrooms emerge from the surface of the substrate. After the mushrooms are harvested they are weighed and packaged for shipment to market.

Auricularia spp. (wood ear mushroom). Total production of Auricularia spp. in 1997 exceeded 485,000 metric tons (fresh weight; Table 2). This value is an increase of 366,000 tons or fourfold over 1986 levels (Chang). Auricularia spp. production now represents about 8 percent of the total cultivated mushroom supply worldwide.

Auricularia auricula and A. polytricha commonly are produced on a synthetic medium consisting of sawdust, cottonseed hulls, bran, and other cereal grains or on natural logs of broadleaf trees. For synthetic medium production of Auricularias, the substrate may be composted for up to five days or used directly after mixing. The medium is filled into heat-resistant polypropylene bags and sterilized (substrate temperature 240°F [121°C]) for sixty minutes. After the substrate has cooled, it is inoculated with either grain or sawdust spawn. Light intensity of more than 500 lux during the spawn run may result in premature formation of primordia. Temperature, light intensity, and relative humidity all interact to influence the nature and quality of the mushrooms.

Flammulina velutipes (enokitake). Worldwide production of F. velutipes has increased from about 100,000 metric tons in 1986 to about 285,000 tons in 1997. Japan is the main producer of enokitake. In the United States, enokitake production has increased at an estimated rate of 25 percent or more per year for the last four years. However, only about 60 tons of enokitake were produced in the United States in 2001.

Production of most enokitake in Japan is based on synthetic substrate contained in polypropylene bottles. Substrates (primarily sawdust and rice bran; 4:1 ratio) are mechanically mixed and filled into heat-resistant bottles with a capacity of 800 to 1,000 ml. Sawdust primarily from Cryptomeria japonica, Chamaecyparis obtusa, or aged (nine to twelve months) Pinus spp. appears to offer the best yields. In the United States, a sterilized, bran-supplemented medium, consisting primarily of corncobs, serves as the primary medium. When the substrate is fully colonized, the original inoculum is removed mechanically from the surface of the substrate and the bottles may be placed upside down for a few days.

To further improve quality during fruiting, temperatures are lowered to 37° to 46°F (3 to 8°C) until harvest. As the mushrooms begin to elongate above the lip of the bottle, a plastic collar is placed around the neck and secured with a Velcro® strip. This collar serves to hold the mushrooms in place so that they are long and straight. When the mushrooms are thirteen to fourteen cm long, the collars are removed and the mushrooms are pulled as a bunch from the substrate. The mushrooms then are vacuum packed and placed into boxes for shipment to market.

Grifola frondosa (maitake). Japan is the major producer and consumer of maitake. Commercial production of maitake in Japan began in 1981 (325 t) and by 1997 reached 32,000 tons (a 98-fold increase). Maitake is produced primarily in the Japanese provinces of Niigata, Nagano, Gunnma, and Shizuoka. Other countries, such as the United States, began maitake production in the early 1990s. Maitake production in the United States in 2001 was estimated at about 84 tons.

Most maitake is marketed as food. However, maitake has been shown to have both antitumor and antiviral properties. Powdered fruit bodies are used in the production of many health foods such as maitake tea, whole powder, granules, drinks, and tablets. Maitake also is believed to lower blood pressure, reduce cholesterol, and reduce the symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome.

Commercial production of most G. frondosa is on synthetic substrate contained in polypropylene bottles or bags. A common substrate used for production is hardwood sawdust supplemented with rice bran or wheat bran in a 5:1 ratio, respectively. Other formulas include hardwood sawdust (70 percent based on oven dry weight basis) supplemented with white millet (20 percent) and wheat bran (10 percent). Some growers may add soil to the mix to stimulate fruit body formation. For production in bags, the moistened substrate is filled into micro-filtered polypropylene bags and sterilized to kill unwanted competitive microorganisms. After cooling (sixteen to twenty hours), the substrate is inoculated and the bags are heat-sealed and shaken to uniformly distribute the spawn throughout the substrate. Spawn run lasts about thirty to fifty days depending on strain and substrate formulation.

Volvariella volvacea (straw mushroom). Cultivation of V. volvaceae is believed to have begun in China as early as 1822. In the 1930s, straw mushroom cultivation began in the Philippines, Malaysia, and other Southeast Asian countries. Production of the straw mushroom increased from 54,000 tons in 1981 to about 181,000 tons in 1997 (about 3 percent of the total mushroom supply).

Many agricultural by-products and waste materials have been used to produce the straw mushroom. These include paddy straw, water hyacinth, oil palm bunch, oil palm pericarp waste, banana leaves and sawdust, cotton waste, and sugarcane waste. Volvariella is well suited for cultivation in the tropics because of its requirement for higher production temperatures. In addition, the mushroom can be grown on nonpasteurized substrate, which is more desirable for low-input agricultural practices.

In recent years, cotton wastes (discarded after sorting in textile mills) have become popular as substrates for straw mushroom production. Cotton waste gives higher and more stable biological efficiencies (30 to 45 percent), earlier fructification (four days after spawning) and harvesting (first nine days after spawning) than that obtained using straw as a substratum. Semi-industrialization of paddy straw cultivation on cotton wastes has occurred in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Indonesia as a result of the introduction of this method.

Wild mushrooms. In many developing countries, the collection and sale of wild edible mushrooms has become an important source of income for many people in remote forested regions. Despite a relatively short growing season, wild mushrooms provide many families with 50 to 100 percent of their income. World trade in wild, edible mushrooms is estimated at more than $7 billion annually (Arora). The global trade in matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake), the most expensive wild mushrooms after truffles, is estimated at $3 to $5 billion. Matsutake may sell for as much as $200 apiece in Tokyo markets. The King Bolete (Boletus edulis; also known as porcini, cepe, borovik, etc.) is the most popular wild mushroom of Europe. These may be served fresh in some upscale restaurants. Dried boletes are famous for their concentrated flavor and choice aroma and are available year round from almost anywhere in the world. Other wild mushrooms available on world markets include chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), morels (Morchella spp.), hedgehog mushrooms (Hydnum repandum), lobster mushrooms (Hypomyces lactifluorum), candy caps (Lactarius fragilis), and cauliflower mushrooms (Sparassis crispa).

WARNING: Collecting and ingesting wild mushrooms without the presence of an expert to correctly identify specimens can be very dangerous and should be discouraged since there are several deadly mushrooms that look like edible wild ones.

Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are chemical compounds produced by fungi growing on organic substances such as corn, cottonseed, or peanuts that, when ingested, have some undesirable effect on humans or on an animal consuming them. Adverse effects can range from vomiting to weight loss, various types of tumors, and in some cases, death. Over one hundred toxic compounds produced by fungi have been identified, and about forty-five of these occur in grain crops. Some mycotoxins are rare in occurrence while others such as aflatoxin are common in some years. The seriousness of the mycotoxin problem varies with the year, the crop being grown, and the intended use of the crop product. Most mycotoxins affect the blood, kidneys, skin, or central nervous system, and some may cause cancer.

The genera of fungi of greatest importance to humans with respect to natural poisoning outbreaks are Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. The Aspergillus flavus group produces aflatoxins (at least eighteen types known) that are considered the most important from the viewpoint of a direct hazard to human health. Aspergillus flavus is a common fungus that is found in soil, air, and decaying plant residues. Infection by A. flavus and subsequent aflatoxin production can occur in the field, in transit, or in storage. Most reports indicate that infection occurs in the field, while aflatoxin production can occur whenever the product is exposed to favorable conditions, either in the field or in storage.

Control of aflatoxin includes prevention of fungal growth, removal of toxins, and inactivation of toxin. Most control efforts have been directed toward control of aflatoxins in peanuts and corn. Hand picking, electronic sorting, and air classification accomplish control of aflatoxin in processed peanut products. Removal of shriveled, rancid, or discolored kernels has proven the most practical way of limiting aflatoxin contamination in peanuts.

Mushroom Collectors

The consumption of wild mushrooms has a lengthy history, dating back well over two millennia and extending throughout the world. For over two hundred years, mushrooms have been a cultivated crop as well. Despite somewhat negative images of mushrooms in the popular imagination and despite the possibility of real danger in their consumption, they have long been valued for their culinary and psychedelic properties. In 300 B.C. Theophrastus recorded that mushrooms were valued as food and for trade. Pliny, Juvenal, Martial, and Cicero all considered mushrooms to be great delicacies, and the Roman emperor Claudius was allegedly poisoned by a plate of mushrooms. Mushrooms are also mentioned in the Hindu Rig Veda and were eaten on the Indian subcontinent. Mushrooms were probably consumed for food and for their psychedelic properties in Mesoamerica, Siberia, and Scandinavia. Some suggest that the biblical "manna from heaven" was a fungus. By the eighteenth-century reign of Louis XIV, mushrooms were cultivated in caves near Paris. During the nineteenth century mushrooming became a popular leisure pursuit in Europe and America, and by the end of the century mushroom societies were formed.

One estimate placed the number of mushroomers in the United States at thirty million in the early 1980s. A survey conducted at the same time found that 22 percent of Americans collect wild mushrooms, and 15 percent consume mushrooms they find. In the nations of eastern, central, and southern Europe with stronger mushroom cultures, these figures would likely be higher. Mushroom societies are found in every region of the United States, as well as Canada and Europe. In the United States, mushroom societies were founded in Boston and Minneapolis in the late nineteenth century. The North American Mycological Association, covering the United States and Canada, has approximately 2,000 members. These clubs organize talks, dinners, sharing of advice, and forays to mushroom collecting sites.

Novices worry about the toxic qualities of wild mushrooms. Despite this, the number of mushroom fatalities, at least in the United States, is very low. In some years, there are no fatalities although illnesses or hospitalizations might occur as a result of the misidentification of mushrooms, the contamination of otherwise edible specimens, or allergic reactions. Among the edible wild mushrooms that are most widely collected in the United States and Europe are morels, chanterelles, puffballs, boletes, and coral mushrooms. While the collection of wild mushrooms has increased in the past decades, the hobby is limited, and the greatest growth in "wild mushrooms" is likely to occur when these foods become cultivated and therefore perceived as safe to consume.

Gary Alan Fine

Bibliography

Arora, D. "The Global Mushroom Trade." California Wild 52, no. 4 (fall 1999):16–17.

Beuchat, Larry R. Food and Beverage Mycology. 2d ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987.

Chang, S. T. "World Production of Cultivated Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms in 1997 with Emphasis on Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. in China." International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 1 (1999):273–282.

Findlay, W. P. K. Fungi: Folklore, Fiction, and Fact. Eureka, Calif.: Mad River Press, 1982.

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—Daniel J. Royse

(fun-jeye, fung-geye)

sing. fungus

Plantlike organisms lacking chlorophyll, such as mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and mildews. Modern biologists tend to place fungi in their own kingdom, not in the plant kingdom, because they get their nutrients from other living things (or from the remains of living things that have died) rather than from photosynthesis. (See under “Medicine and Health.”)

[L.] plural of fungus.

IN BRIEF: More than one of a major group of flowerless plants that do not have chlorophyll or seeds.

If a healthy soil is full of death, it is also full of life: worms, fungi, microorganisms of all kinds. — Wendell Berry.

Common misspelling(s) of fungi

• funguses

Dansk (Danish)
n. pl. - svampe

Nederlands (Dutch)
schimmels

Français (French)
n. pl. - champignons, moisissures, mycoses

Deutsch (German)
n. pl. - Pilze

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. pl. - (φυτολ.) μύκητες

Italiano (Italian)
funghi

Português (Portuguese)
n. pl. - fungos (m pl) (Bot.), cogumelos (m pl)

Русский (Russian)
грибки, грибовидные наросты, плесень

Español (Spanish)
n. pl. - hongo

Svenska (Swedish)
n. pl. - svampbildning

中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
菌类, 菌状肿

中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. pl. - 菌類, 菌狀腫

한국어 (Korean)
n. pl. - 곰팡이, (균에 의한) 감염

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 急に生ずるもの, 菌, キノコ, 菌類

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الجمع) فطر‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. pl. - ‮פטריות‬

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