[Gr., =dipping], in most Christian churches a sacrament. It is a rite of purification by water, a ceremony invoking the grace of God to regenerate the person, free him or her from sin, and make that person a part of the church. Thus, baptism is usually required for membership in the church. In Roman Catholic and Anglican theology baptism is also held to confer an indelible character on the person, requiring him or her to worship. Formal baptism is performed by immersion (as among the Baptists) or by pouring or sprinkling water on the person to be baptized. This ceremony is accompanied, in churches that accept the dogma of the Trinity, by a formula asking the blessing of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In some churches the child is baptized soon after birth and has sponsors (godfather and godmother) who make declarations of faith in his name. The rite is sometimes called christening, and this term is applied especially to the giving of a baptismal name. Other churches withhold baptism until the person is relatively mature. Some Protestant groups, such as the Religious Society of Friends, reject all outward baptismal rites. Similar customs are known in many non-Christian cultures. The baptism of Jesus himself can be considered part of the founding of the Christian Church.

Baptism, from Greek βαπτίζω (baptízô), is a religious act of purification by water usually associated with admission to membership or fullness of membership of Christianity.

The Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott gives the primary meaning of the word βαπτίζω, from which the English word baptism is derived, as dip, plunge, but indicates, citing Luke 11:38, that it was used also to mean perform ablutions.^[1]

By analogy, the English word "baptism" is used of any ceremony, trial, or experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a name.^[2] See Other initiation ceremonies below.

The periodically repeated Jewish purification rite of mikvah is not normally spoken of as baptism, largely because of the Christian associations of the word "baptism".

This article will mainly consider the practices and beliefs of Christians with regard to this rite and in particular the forms in which they hold that it should be administered.

Meaning of the Greek word βαπτίζω

Liddell and Scott is not the only authority to point out that the Greek word βαπτίζω did not mean exclusively, dip, plunge, immerge. Scholars of various denominations^[3] point to two passages in the New Testament as indicating that the word was used of something much less than the total immersion of the person. Luke 11:38 recounts that, when Jesus ate at a Pharisee's house, "the Pharisee was astonished to see that he did not first wash (βαπτίζω - literally, "be baptized" or "baptize himself") before dinner." Those who point to this passage say that the Pharisee will not have expected Jesus to immerse himself fully before having a meal and that his surprise will have been at Jesus' omission of the customary ritual washing of the hands.^[4] The other New Testament passage pointed to is Mark 7:3–4a: "The Pharisees ... do not eat unless they wash (νίπτω, the ordinary word for washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the tradition of the elders; and when they come from the market place, they do not eat unless they wash themselves (literally, "baptize themselves" - βαπτίζω)".

History

Background in Jewish ritual

Main article: Mikvah

Although the term "baptism" is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or mikvah - ritual immersion) in Jewish laws and tradition have some similarity to baptism, and the two have been linked^[5] although their relationship is disputed. In the Jewish Bible and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity" in specific circumstances. For example, Jews who (according to the Law of Moses) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion to cleanse them from former practices. Immersion in the mikvah represents purification and restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, because the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners. (See Numbers Chapter 19, and Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Chagigah, page 12).

The mikvah is a rite that is meant to be carried out repeatedly, and is thus essentially different from baptism, which has an unrepeatable character.

Apostolic period

See also: Apostolic Age

The Bible gives accounts of baptisms performed before this period, in the lifetime of Jesus, by John the Baptist in the Jordan River,^[6] and by Jesus, not personally but rather through his disciples.^[7]

In the apostolic period, it reports baptisms of about 3,000 persons in Jerusalem within a single day, that of Pentecost,^[8] of men and women in Samaria,^[9] of an Ethiopian eunuch,^[10] of Saul, who was later called Paul,^[11] of the household of Cornelius,^[12] of Lydia's household,^[13] of the Philippi jailer's household,^[14] of many Corinthians,^[15] of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally.^[16]

None of these accounts gives an exact description of the method(s) by which baptism was administered in the apostolic period, whether by immersion, by pouring water on someone standing in a stream or pool, or in some other way.^[17] However, the idea of washing implicit in the word βαπτίζω (see above) implies the use of water, though there is only one explicit mention (Acts 8:38) of the use of water in apostolic times.^[18]

Some claim that the mentions of baptisms by John in the River Jordan and that of the spring or pool of water found on the desert road from Jerusalem to Gaza (Acts 8:26 and 8:36-38) imply the use of immersion.^[19] They also seek support in the figure of speech of "burial" used in connection with baptism in both Romans 6:3-4 ("Do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? Therefore we have been buried with him by baptism into death, so that, just as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we too might walk in newness of life.") and Colossians 2:12 ("When you were buried with him in baptism, you were also raised with him through faith in the power of God, who raised him from the dead"). They take this as implying baptism by full immersion to symbolise burial.^[20] Additionally, some take the figure of speech used in John 3:3-5 of how a Christian is "born again" by being "born of water" as implying a baptism of complete immersion in water from which the person baptised comes out from under the water as if being born again.^[21]

Others, while not denying that immersion may have been the usual form of baptism in apostolic times, claim that there is no evidence that no other form was used. They point to physical problems in supposing that total immersion was used when, for instance, 3,000 people were baptized in Jerusalem, which only had mikvahs for immersion, in a single day, as recounted in Acts 2:41, or when the whole household of the Philippi jailer were baptized immediately during the night of the earthquake (Acts 16:33); they also point to the explicit recognition in early Christian writings, one of which, the Didache, may even date from apostolic times, that other forms of baptism were valid.^[22]

Many scholars believe immersion, whether partial or complete, was the dominant mode of baptism in the early church.^{[23][24][25][26][27]} Other forms were also admitted in certain circumstances, as today in the East, where immersion continues to be prevalent.

In imitation of the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan, early Christians preferred rivers for performing baptisms, and this was also suitable for the baptism of large crowds.^[28] Since rivers were not available everywhere, some important writers of the second and third centuries (Justin, Clement, Victor I, and Tertullian) remarked that seas, lakes, ponds and springs are equally proper baptismal sites.^[28]

Outside of the Bible, probably the earliest known written instructions for administering baptism is that of the anonymous book of 16 short chapters known as the Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, which most scholars date to about the year 100.^[29] It gives the following instruction: "Concerning baptism, baptize this way: Having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water [that is, in running water, as in a river]. But if you have no living water, baptize into other water; and if you cannot do so in cold water, do so in warm. But if you have neither, pour out water three times upon the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit."^[30]

On the separate but related question of whether early Christians baptized infants, see the article on infant baptism.

Early Christianity

The following period of Early Christianity seems to have introduced little or no changes. Immersion continued to be the usual method of baptism, and there is no evidence to suggest that the practice of the first century differed in any way from what is known more precisely from the second and third centuries. "In the case of the sick or dying, where immersion was impossible, the sacrament was then conferred by one of the other forms. This was so well recognized that infusion or aspersion received the name of the "baptism of the sick" (baptismus clinicorum), because it was hardly an "immersion" or "dipping" in water. Cyprian's Epistle 75 (third century) declared this form to be valid. From the canons of various early councils we know that candidates for Holy orders who had been baptized by this method seem to have been regarded as irregular, but this was on account of the culpable negligence supposed to be manifested in delaying baptism until sick or dying. That such persons, however, were not to be rebaptized is an evidence that the Church held their baptism to be valid."^[27]

Middle Ages

In the period between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, affusion (pouring) became the usual manner of administering baptism in Western Europe, though immersion continued to be found in some places even as late as the sixteenth century.^[27] Throughout the Middle Ages, there was therefore considerable variation in the kind of facility required for baptism, from the baptismal pool large enough to immerse several adults simultaneously of the 13th century Baptistery at Pisa,^[31] to the half-metre deep basin in the 6th century baptistery of the old Cologne Cathedral.^[32]

Both East and West considered washing with water and the Trinitarian baptismal formula necessary for administering the rite. Scholasticism referred to these two elements as the matter and the form of the sacrament, employing terms taken from the then prevailing Aristotelian philosophy.^[33]

Reformation

Further information: Anabaptism

Interpretation of baptism as a sacrament was one of the points of contention between Zwingli and Luther.

At the time of John Calvin, some held that immersion in water for remission of sins (Acts 2:38), the "burial in baptism" used as a figure of speech in Romans 6:4 and Colossians 2:12, was not required in Christianity to receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Instead, they posited a waterless "baptism in the spirit", citing Jesus on the day of his Ascension in Acts 1:5: "For John indeed baptized with water; but ye shall be baptized in the Holy Spirit not many days hence." See Baptism in Hyperdispensationalism.

Modern practice

Today, baptism is most readily identified with Christianity, where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he may be called "saved" or "born again." Most Christian groups practice some form of literal water-based baptism and agree that it is important, yet strongly disagree with other groups regarding any or all of several aspects of the rite, such as:

• manner or method of the "baptism", including the necessity of using water
• recipients of baptism
• meaning and effects of baptism

A few Christian groups assert that water baptism has been supplanted by the promised "baptism of the Holy Spirit", and water baptism was unnecessarily carried over from the early Jewish Christian practice. Some require the explicit word "water" to be used in the text if it is to be interpreted as a literal baptism in water.^{[citation needed]}

Manner of baptism

Today, Christian baptism takes many forms among Christian denominations, but the three basic forms are as follows: -

Aspersion

Main article: Aspersion

.

Aspersion is the sprinkling water on the head.

Affusion

Main article: Affusion

.

Affusion is the pouring water over the head.

For Christians who baptise by pouring or sprinkling, the washing with water from above pictures the cleansing of one's sins by the blood of Christ, by the Holy Spirit, who unites the baptized person to Christ in His death, and in His resurrection from the dead.

Immersion

Immersion is the submerging of the entire body in water.

Some Christians who immerse either take the same symbol after the fact as above, and/or account it as the penitents necessary obedience to the faith from the heart (see Mark 16:16, Romans 6:17, 1Peter 4:17) by which obedience God remits sins and imparts the indwelling Holy Spirit (Acts 5:32) which will raise the body up on the last day just as the Spirit raised Jesus from the dead, Romans 8:9-11.

Biblical passages such as Romans 6:2-13 and Colossians 2:12-13 lead some Christians to believe that baptism is by full immersion in water in order to represent a death and burial (when the person being baptised is submerged under the water, like they are being buried), and a resurrection (when the person comes up out of the water, like they are rising from the grave) - a "death" and a "burial" to an old way of life focused on sinning, and a "resurrection" to the start of a new life as a Christian focused on God.^[20] John 3:3-5 is also sometimes taken as implying that baptism is by complete immersion in water to represent a birth to a new life as a Christian (when the person being baptised comes out of the water).^[21] It is maintained by some Christians who carry out immersion that other forms of baptism, e.g. sprinkling, fail to adequately represent these symbols of death, burial, resurrection and birth and thus are incorrect methods of baptism.^[19]

Excepting Hyperdispensationalism and a few others who embrace a "faith only" position, baptism is believed to be the point at which the gift of the life-giving Spirit is received, and to portray baptism as an act not of man, but of God. Regardless of the form, baptism is usually a public rite, in testimony to others of the grace of God bestowed upon the person whose remitted sins, and as the seal of God's promises 2Corinthians 1:22, Ephesians 1:13 are received in Christ to those who believe.

Meaning and effects of baptism

There are differences in views about the effect of baptism for a Christian. Some Christian groups assert baptism is a requirement for salvation and a sacrament, and speak of "baptismal regeneration." This view is shared by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, by Churches formed early during the Protestant Reformation such as Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist, and Restorationist Churches such as the Churches of Christ and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). For example, Martin Luther said:

To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to "be saved." To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever.

—The Large Catechism, 1529

For Roman Catholics, baptism by water is a sacrament of initiation into the life of children of God. (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1212-13). It configures the person to Christ (CCC 1272), and obliges the Christian to share in the Church's apostolic and missionary activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic Tradition holds that there are three types of baptism by which one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit desire to be part of the Church founded by Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood (martyrdom) (see topic below : Catholic baptism and salvation).

By contrast, Baptist and Calvinist groups espouse baptism as a worthy practice, but say that baptism has no sacramental power, and only testifies outwardly to the invisible and internal operation of God's power, which is completely separate from the rite itself.

Baptism in most Christian traditions

The liturgy of baptism in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of original sin, and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy) also baptize infants on the basis of texts such as Matthew 19:14, which are interpreted as supporting full Church membership for children, and so baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy regardless of age. Orthodox likewise believe that baptism removes what they call the ancestral sin of Adam.^[34] Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of what in the West is called original sin, in the East ancestral sin.

Eastern Orthodox Christians usually insist on complete threefold immersion as both a symbol of death and rebirth into Christ, and as a washing away of sin. Latin Rite Catholics generally baptize by affusion (pouring); Eastern Catholics usually by immersion, at least partial. However immersion is gaining in popularity within the Latin Catholic Church. In newer churches, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion. Older church building may feature this as well by either building a new baptismal font or expanding an existing one. Anglicans baptize by immersion, affusion or sprinkling.

Baptists argue that the Greek word βαπτίζω, though, as mentioned above, it is used in the New Testament in other senses, originally meant "to immerse"; as also mentioned above, they interpret some Biblical passages concerning baptism as requiring an immersion of the body in water. They also state that only immersion reflects the symbolic significance of being "buried" and "raised" with Christ (see Romans 6:3-4).

Comparative summary

Comparative Summary of Baptisms of Denominations of Christian Influence.^{[35] [36] [37]}

Denomination	Beliefs about Baptism	Type of Baptism	Baptize Infants?	Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life	Standard
Anglican Communion	A sign of profession and a mark of separation which, received rightly, affirms the forgiveness received by a believer through faith.	By immersion or pouring.	Yes.	Anglo-Catholic Yes, "Low church" No.	Trinity
Apostolic Brethren	Necessary for salvation because it conveys spiritual rebirth.	By immersion only. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit. [[2]]	No.	Yes.	Jesus [[3]]
Baptists	A divine ordinance, a symbolic ritual, a sign of having already been saved, but not necessary for salvation. See Baptist - Believer's Baptism.	By immersion only.	No.	No.	Trinity
Christadelphians	Baptism is essential for the salvation of a believer.[38] It is only effective if somebody believes the true gospel message before they are baptised.[39] Baptism is an external symbol of an internal change in the believer: it represents a death to an old, sinful way of life, and the start of a new life as a Christian, summed up as the repentance of the believer[20] - it therefore leads to forgiveness from God, who forgives people who repent.[40] Although someone is only baptised once, a believer must live by the principles of their baptism (i.e. death to sin, and a new life following Jesus) throughout their life.[41]	By immersion only[42]	No[42]	Yes	Jesus
Churches of Christ	Baptism is a must for salvation as commanded by Jesus, Mark 16:16; Matt. 28:19. One receives forgiveness of sin, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and addition to God's church. Acts 2:38-41. This is done after one has expressed their faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God and repented from their sins.	Immersion only	No	Yes	Trinity
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints	An ordinance essential to enter any degree of heaven and preparatory for receiving the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands.	By immersion performed by a person holding proper priesthood authority.	No	Yes	Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost (The LDS church doesn't believe in the general notion of the trinity)
Eastern Orthodox Church	The old man dies the "New Man" is born free from ancestral sin. A new name is given. All previous commitments and sins are null and void.	By 3-fold immersion (other forms only in emergency, must be corrected by priest if possible).	Yes. Confirmation and communion immediately follows.	Yes	Trinity
Jehovah’s Witnesses	Baptism is necessary for salvation as part of the entire baptismal arrangement: as an expression of obedience to Jesus' command (Matthew 28:19-20), as a public symbol of the saving faith in the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:10), and as an indication of repentance from dead works and the dedication of one's life to Jehovah. (1 Peter 2:21) However, baptism does not guarantee salvation.	By immersion only; typical candidates are baptized at district and circuit conventions.	No	Yes	Jesus
Denomination (Continued)	Beliefs about Baptism	Type of Baptism	Baptize Infants?	Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life	Standard
Lutherans	Baptism is how God miraculously delivers a person from sin, death, and the devil; gives new life; and brings one into Christ’s kingdom forever (Titus 3:5).	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes	Yes	Trinity
Methodists (Arminians, Wesleyans)	Baptism not necessary to salvation, since it is an outward sign of one’s membership in the Christian community.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes	No	Trinity
Pentecostal (Various “Holiness” groups, Christian Missionary Alliance, Assemblies of God)	Water Baptism is an ordinance, a symbolic ritual used to witness to having accepted Christ as personal Savior.	By immersion. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit.	No	Varies	Trinity
Presbyterians	An ordinance, a symbolic ritual, and a seal of the adult believer’s present faith.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant.	No	Trinity
Quakers (Religious Society of Friends)	Only an external symbol that is no longer to be practiced.	Do not believe in Baptism of water, but only in an inward, ongoing purification of the human spirit in a life of discipline led by the Holy Spirit.	—	—	—
Revivalism	A necessary step for salvation.	By full immersion, with the expectation of receiving the Holy Spirit.	No	Yes	Father, Son, Holy Ghost
Roman Catholic Church	"Necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1257)	Usually by pouring in the West, by immersion in the East; sprinkling admitted only if the water then flows on the head.	Yes	Yes	Trinity
Seventh-day Adventists	Not stated as the way to salvation, but a prerequisite for salvation since it symbolizes the acceptance of Jesus as your savior. A time for person to express personal faith in Christ.	By immersion only.	No	No	Trinity
United Church of Christ (Evangelical and Reformed Churches and the Congregational Christian Churches)	One of two sacraments. Baptism is an outward sign of God's inward grace. It is not necessary for membership in a local congregation. However, it is a common practice for both infants and adults.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant.	No	Trinity

Ecumenical statement

The ecumenical paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestants traditions of Christianity, attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament.

" ... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community — the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) — and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.). At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1 Corinthians 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5)."^[43]

Baptism and salvation in Catholic teaching

In Roman Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation.^[44] This teaching dates back to the teachings and practices of first-century Christians, and the connection between salvation and baptism was not, on the whole, an item of major dispute until Martin Luther's teachings regarding grace. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states:"Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament."^[45] Accordingly, a person who knowingly, willfully and unrepentantly rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. This teaching is based on Jesus' words in the Gospel according to John : "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the Kingdom of God."^[46] As stated earlier, three forms of baptism are acknowledged by the Church. Baptism by water refers to the traditional baptism whereby the individual is immersed water or has water poured over his head in the name of the Trinity.

Catholics are baptized in the name (singular) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit^[47] — not three gods, but one God subsisting in three Persons. While sharing in the one divine essence, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct, not simply three "masks" or manifestations of one Person. The faith of the Church and of the individual Christian is based on a relationship with these three Persons of the one God.

It is claimed that Pope Stephen I, St. Ambrose, and Pope Nicholas I declared that baptisms in the name of "Jesus" only as well as in the name of "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" were valid. The correct interpretation of their words is disputable.^[48] Current canonical law requires the Trinitarian formula and water for validity^[49].

The Church recognizes two other forms of non biblical baptism: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire." Baptism of blood refers to unbaptized individuals who are martyred for the Faith, while baptism of desire generally refers to catechumens who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms:

The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258)

For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)

Non-Christians who seek God with a sincere heart and, moved by grace, try to do God's will as they know it through the dictates of conscience can also be saved without water baptism; they are said to desire it implicitly. (cf. Catechism, 1260). As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261).

Conditions of the validity of a baptism

Since the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches teach that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e., to actually have those effects.) These criteria are actually broader than the ordinary practice. Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism illicit (in violation of the Church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a priest introduces some variation in the authorized rite for the ceremony, the baptism may still be valid (provided certain key criteria are met).

One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Latin Rite Roman Catholics and Episcopalians/Anglicans use the form "I baptize you..."; Eastern Orthodox and some Eastern Catholic Churches use the form "This servant of Christ is baptized..." or "This person is baptized by my hands...". These Churches recognize each other's form of baptism as valid to varying degrees. The Catholic Church teaches that the use of the verb "baptize" is essential.^[27] An article published together with the official declaration to that effect gave reasons for that judgement, summed up in the following words: "The Baptism of the Catholic Church and that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints differ essentially, both for what concerns faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name Baptism is conferred, and for what concerns the relationship to Christ who instituted it."

Who may administer a baptism

There is debate among Christian churches as to who can administer baptism. The examples given in the New Testament only show apostles and deacons administering baptism. Ancient Christian churches interpret this as indicating that baptism should be performed by the clergy except in extremis, i.e., when the one being baptized is in immediate danger of death. Then anyone may baptize, provided, in the view of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the person who does the baptizing is a member of that Church, or, in the view of the Roman Catholic Church, that the person, even if not baptized, intends to do what the Church does in administering the rite. Many Protestant churches see no specific prohibition in the biblical examples and permit any believer to baptize another.

In the Latin Rite Catholic Church the ordinary minister of baptism is a member of the clergy (bishop, priest or deacon),^[50] but in normal circumstances only the Parish Priest of the person to be baptized, or someone authorized by the Parish Priest, may do so licitly^[51]. "If the ordinary minister is absent or impeded, a catechist or some other person deputed to this office by the local Ordinary, may lawfully confer baptism; indeed, in a case of necessity, any person who has the requisite intention may do so^[52] By "a case of necessity" is meant imminent danger of death because of either illness or an external threat. "The requisite intention" is, at the minimum level, the intention "to do what the Church does" through the rite of baptism.

In the Eastern Catholic Churches, a deacon is not considered an ordinary minister. Administration of the sacrament is reserved, as in the Latin Rite, to the Parish Priest. But, "in case of necessity (in extremis), baptism can be administered by a deacon or, in his absence or if he is impeded, by another cleric, a member of an institute of consecrated life, or by any other Christian faithful; even by the mother or father, if another person is not available who knows how to baptize".^[53]

The discipline of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East is similar to that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. They require the baptizer, even in cases of necessity, to be of their own faith, on the grounds that a person cannot convey what he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church.^[54] The Latin Rite Catholic Church does not insist on this condition, considering that the effect of the sacrament, such as membership of the Church, is not produced by the person who baptizes, but by the Holy Spirit. For the Orthodox, while Baptism in extremis may be administered by a deacon or any layperson, if the newly-baptized person survives, a priest must still perform the other prayers of the Rite of Baptism, and administer the Mystery of Chrismation.

The discipline of Anglicanism is similar to that of the Latin Rite Catholic Church. For Methodists and many other Protestant denominations, too, the ordinary minister of baptism is a duly ordained or appointed minister of religion.

Newer movements of Protestant Evangelical churches, particularly non-denominational, have begun to allow those persons most instrumental in one's faith to baptize. The rationale for such a practice lies in the New Testament accounts of John the Baptist baptizing his own disciples, Christ his own,^{[citation needed]} Phillip his own (such as the Ethiopian eunuch), etc.

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, only a man holding the priesthood office of Priest or higher office may administer baptism.

Anabaptist and Baptist baptism

Baptist groups derive their name either from the restrictions that they traditionally place on the mode and subjects of the ordinance of baptism or from a shortening of the term Anabaptist which means to rebaptize. Early Anabaptists were labeled such because they re-baptized persons whom they felt had not been properly baptized (having received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination). Some modern Baptists do not believe baptism by immersion is the only legitimate form of baptism, they simply perform baptism by immersion for members who wish to be baptized. It does not imply that any previous form of baptism by affusion or sprinkling is invalid. Baptism is an act identifying one as having accepted Jesus Christ as Savior. And "one enters by baptism into the membership of the church which

performs it."^[55]

Baptist theologians (such as John Gill) teach that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith. This is called believer's baptism. Some, such as Gill, argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Some would argue that according to this understanding, the re-baptisms that Baptists generally perform if a person was not regenerate when baptized also violate the Regulative Principle for Worship. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in Jeremiah 31:31-34 as a time when all who were members of it would have the law written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist theology teaches that only those who are born again, as indicated by a profession of faith, are members of the New Covenant. They view this text as speaking of the visible church in the present age, rather than as a prophetic text of God's New Covenant in Christ administered to all saints from Genesis to the present, which will be fulfilled when Christ returns to earth. Baptism is therefore not administered to those unable to make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized; but it will be administered upon making this confession, regardless of the confessor's age. Some Baptist churches take exception to this and are very hesitant to baptize young children because they want to confirm whether or not they are regenerate. A confession alone is not enough for these churches, they want to see fruit of regeneration in the life of the person to be baptized, which some argue violates the example set forth in the book of Acts, which performed immediate baptisms.

Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal font, a swimming pool, or a bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism. Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus (Romans 6), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God. They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith. It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the New Covenant of Christ (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-12, Romans 6).

For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation. Once baptized, a Baptist may move their membership to another congregation by letter.

The above description applies not just to those denominations using Baptist in their names, but also to a wide variety of other Protestant denominations deriving from the Anabaptist tradition, including some Mennonites and Pentecostals.

Reformed and Covenant Theology view

Main article: Covenant Theology#Baptism

Paedobaptist Covenant theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of familial, corporate inclusion or "generational succession." The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner.

Baptism is considered by the Reformed churches as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of faith. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include children, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see Infant baptism). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of circumcision and symbolizes the internal cleansing from sin, among other things.

Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

This section is a part of a series on The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

See also: Baptism for the dead and Rebaptism (Latter Day Saints)

In the Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism), baptism is recognized as the first ordinance of the gospel. As with many other Restorationist faiths, baptism must be by immersion for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. LDS baptism does not intend to remit any sins other than personal ones, as the LDS Church does not believe in original sin.

Latter Day Saint baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability", or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong, which is defined by the church as the age of eight years. Mormonism rejects infant baptism. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Since the LDS Church has a lay priesthood, children raised in an LDS family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office of priest, which is conferred to "worthy" male members at the age of 16.

Latter Day Saints do not believe that the gift of the Holy Spirit occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate confirmation ritual after baptism. This ritual is believed to be confirmed by Paul's actions in Acts 19:6, where, following the baptism of several followers of Christ, he "laid his hands upon" those who were baptized and they then received the Holy Ghost.

The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the sacrament every week, which Latter Day Saints consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of Jesus's death, burial and resurrection and of the death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus of the one baptized.

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (or "Mormon" Church), baptism and confirmation are only the first of several ordinances believed to be required for exaltation. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. As Latter-day Saints do not recognize the validity of baptisms of other faiths, all who come into the church as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith. The person being baptized must be at least eight years old. The church also practices baptism for the dead (along with all other ordinances) "vicariously" or "by proxy" in their temples for anyone who did not receive these ordinances while living.

Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples, where proxy baptisms are performed for the dead, the fonts rest on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel, following the pattern of the "molten sea" in the Temple of Solomon (see 2 Chronicles 4:2-5). Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two priesthood holders wit